Biometric evidence that sexual selection has shaped the hominin face.

We consider sex differences in human facial morphology in the context of developmental change. We show that at puberty, the height of the upper face, between the lip and the brow, develops differently in males and females, and that these differences are not explicable in terms of sex differences in body size. We find the same dimorphism in the faces of human ancestors. We propose that the relative shortening in men and lengthening in women of the anterior upper face at puberty is the mechanistic consequence of extreme maxillary rotation during ontogeny. A link between this developmental model and sexual dimorphism is made for the first time, and provides a new set of morphological criteria to sex human crania. This finding has important implications for the role of sexual selection in the evolution of anthropoid faces and for theories of human facial attractiveness.

Wide faces or large canines? The attractive versus the aggressive primate.

Hominids display marked body size dimorphism, suggestive of strong sexual selection, yet they lack significant sex differences in canine size that are commonly associated with intrasexual competition in primates. We resolve this paradox by examining sex differences in hominoid facial morphology. We show that chimpanzees, but not gorillas, exhibit clear sexual dimorphism in face width, over and above that expected based on sex differences in body size. We show that this facial dimorphism, expressed as an index, is negatively correlated with canine dimorphism among anthropoid primates. Our findings suggest that a lack of canine dimorphism in anthropoids is not owing to weak sexual selection, but rather is associated with strong sexual selection for broader face width. Enlarged cheek-bones are linked with attractiveness in humans, and we propose that the evolution of a broad face and loss of large canines in hominid males results from mate choice.