Soil carbon dioxide partial pressure and dissolved inorganic carbonate chemistry under elevated carbon dioxide and ozone.

Global emissions of atmospheric CO(2) and tropospheric O(3) are rising and expected to impact large areas of the Earth's forests. While CO(2) stimulates net primary production, O(3) reduces photosynthesis, altering plant C allocation and reducing ecosystem C storage. The effects of multiple air pollutants can alter belowground C allocation, leading to changes in the partial pressure of CO(2) (pCO(2)) in the soil , chemistry of dissolved inorganic carbonate (DIC) and the rate of mineral weathering. As this system represents a linkage between the long- and short-term C cycles and sequestration of atmospheric CO(2), changes in atmospheric chemistry that affect net primary production may alter the fate of C in these ecosystems. To date, little is known about the combined effects of elevated CO(2) and O(3) on the inorganic C cycle in forest systems. Free air CO(2) and O(3) enrichment (FACE) technology was used at the Aspen FACE project in Rhinelander, Wisconsin to understand how elevated atmospheric CO(2) and O(3) interact to alter pCO(2) and DIC concentrations in the soil. Ambient and elevated CO(2) levels were 360+/-16 and 542+/-81 microl l(-1), respectively; ambient and elevated O(3) levels were 33+/-14 and 49+/-24 nl l(-1), respectively. Measured concentrations of soil CO(2) and calculated concentrations of DIC increased over the growing season by 14 and 22%, respectively, under elevated atmospheric CO(2) and were unaffected by elevated tropospheric O(3). The increased concentration of DIC altered inorganic carbonate chemistry by increasing system total alkalinity by 210%, likely due to enhanced chemical weathering. The study also demonstrated the close coupling between the seasonal delta(13)C of soil pCO(2) and DIC, as a mixing model showed that new atmospheric CO(2) accounted for approximately 90% of the C leaving the system as DIC. This study illustrates the potential of using stable isotopic techniques and FACE technology to examine long- and short-term ecosystem C sequestration.

Suitability of process-based tree growth models for addressing tree response to climate change.

Empirical models of tree growth have been used for many years to predict timber yields and other properties of trees. However, such models rely on measured relationships between tree growth and historic environmental conditions. As anthropogenic actions alter the environment, especially atmospheric composition, empirical models become less reliable and process-based models become more useful. Process-based models are challenged to simulate growth of structurally and physiologically complex organisms using explicit mathematical expressions to capture growth response to environmental conditions. In this review we summarize the physiological requirements of process-based models and examine the capabilities of six published models (CARBON, ECOPHYS, PGSM, TREE-BGC, TREGRO, W91) for simulating tree response to changes in environmental conditions (elevated temperature, increased CO(2) concentration, and enhanced concentrations of tropospheric ozone). These analyses indicate that current models are reliable integrators of environmental effects on individual processes (e.g. photosynthesis), but may be less reliable where physiological acclimation occurs or when extrapolated to growth of specific tree compartments.

Aluminum sensitivity of loblolly pine and slash pine seedlings grown in solution culture.

To probe variation in Al sensitivity of two co-occurring pine species, seedlings from six full-sib families of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) and slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) were grown in solution culture containing 4.4 mM (high-Al) or 0.01 mM (low-Al) AlCl(3) at pH 4 for 58 days. On average, both pine species had 41% less total dry weight in the high-Al treatment than in the low-Al treatment. Stem volume growth of slash pine was more sensitive to the high-Al treatment than that of loblolly pine. In both species, the high-Al treatment inhibited root dry weight more than shoot dry weight. Within-species variation in Al sensitivity among families was greater in loblolly pine (24 to 52% inhibition of seedling dry weight) than in slash pine (35 to 47% inhibition of seedling dry weight). Foliar Al concentration was positively correlated with Al sensitivity in slash pine but not in loblolly pine; however, in both species, the concentration of Al in roots was 20-fold greater than in foliage.

Mild ozone exposure alters (14)C dynamics in foliage of Pinus taeda L.

To explore the physiological mechanisms underlying ozone-induced growth reductions in loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.), seedlings were exposed to sub-ambient (charcoal-filtered), ambient or twice-ambient ozone in open-top chambers for three growing seasons. In the final year of exposure, current-year needle fascicles were labeled with (14)CO(2) and the incorporation of (14)C into biochemical fractions was followed for 48 hours. Irrespective of ozone treatment, losses of (14)C-assimilates from foliage to respiration and translocation were minimal during the first 3 hours, whereas more than 60% of the label was lost during the next 45 hours. Radiolabel in sugar decreased rapidly after a lag period, roughly paralleling the pattern of total (14)C loss. The amount of (14)C label in starch and lipids plus pigments remained constant throughout the 48-hour chase period, whereas the amount of (14)C label in other fractions showed a net decrease over the 48-hour chase period. Ozone treatments altered foliar carbon dynamics in two ways: (1) ozone exposure increased foliar (14)C retention up to 21% for the first 5 hours after labeling, but not thereafter, and (2) ozone exposure decreased partitioning of (14)C into starch and increased partitioning of (14)C into organic acids, residue, and lipids plus pigments, indicating an intensified partitioning of carbon to injury and repair processes. Both short-term carbon retention and diversion of carbon from storage compounds to repair processes are foliar mechanisms by which ozone exposure could decrease growth in loblolly pine seedlings.

Biochemical composition of loblolly pine reflects pollutant exposure.

Under experimental conditions, the growth of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) is often responsive to ozone at near-ambient concentrations. However, little is known of the biochemical changes associated with this or other pollutants. Loblolly pine seedlings in open-top chambers were exposed to combinations of ozone (sub-ambient, ambient, or twice-ambient), acidic precipitation (pH 3.8 or pH 5.2) and soil magnesium (0.15 or 0.32 microg g(-1) exchangeable Mg) for three growing seasons. The effects of these treatments were greater in foliage than in stems or roots. The largest treatment effect was a 50% decrease in the starch concentration of current-year foliage from the twice-ambient ozone treatment compared with current-year foliage from the sub-ambient ozone treatment. Responses to ozone were consistent with the hypothesis that ozone-induced growth reductions are associated with depletion of carbohydrate reserves resulting from injury compensation and repair processes or reduced carbon fixation or both. Addition of acidic precipitation, and to a small extent Mg, decreased sugar concentrations of tissues; however, this effect appeared to be mediated by nutrient addition rather than by acidity per se. Given the role of carbohydrates in plant resistance to environmental stress, the sensitivity of carbohydrates to experimental treatments demonstrates the potential for indirect effects of ozone, acidic precipitation, and soil properties on stress resistance. Noncarbohydrate constituents were largely unresponsive to the experimental treatments. These findings imply that tissue carbohydrate analysis may be useful for assessing the impacts of pollutants in forest ecosystems.

Quantification of two-year-old hybrid poplar root systems: morphology, biomass, and (14)C distribution.

Root morphology, biomass, and (14)C distribution were studied in two 2-year-old Populus trichocarpa x P. deltoides hybrids, which originated from hardwood cuttings, to determine the pattern of root distribution in a plantation and to refine methods for root recovery. The trees were labeled with (14)CO(2) and harvested after a 72-hour chase period. Roots attached to each labeled tree were analyzed for morphological traits at the time of harvest. Detached roots from within a 1-m(3) volume of soil surrounding each tree were separated from the soil and sorted on the basis of rooting depth and root diameter. Lateral roots > 2 mm in diameter had a largely horizontal orientation at their point of origin from the cutting and extended horizontally up to 4 m from the cutting. This resulted in considerable overlap of root systems in the plantation. Results from (14)C labeling indicated that 24 +/- 4% (+/- SD) of the carbon exported from branches-labeled within two weeks after branch budset-was translocated to the root system. Dilution of the root (14)C label indicated that from 0 (> 5 mm diameter roots) to 75% (< 2 mm diameter roots) of the roots recovered from within the 1-m(3) volume of soil surrounding a harvested tree originated from other trees. Total root biomass was 6 +/- 1 Mg ha(-1) for both hybrids. Sixty percent of the root biomass was recovered directly from excavation, 16% from coarse-sieving excavated soil, and 24% from re-sorting sieved soil. The study indicated that root growth of hybrid poplars may be rapid and extensive and that detailed sorting of soil subsamples substantially improves the recovery of fine roots < 2 mm in diameter.