Comparison of tactile awareness in children during the production of isolated syllables of English.

To assess whether lingual-tactile feedback is developmental 60 normally developing children formed two groups of 30. Group 1 were in Grades 1 and 2 (M age=6.6 yr.) and Group 2 in Grades 5 and 6 (M age=10.7 yr.). All children passed a speech, language, and hearing screening. They were asked to imitate the production of a syllable, then describe the location of the tongue during that production. Following this request, subjects were given four multiple-choice questions to answer regarding (a) tongue height (high to low), (b) tongue position (front to back), (c) contact with the teeth, and (d) contact with other structures within the oral cavity. Seven English phonemes (t, k, sh, r, l, and th) were presented in a consonant vowel (CF) syllable with the central carat vowel (pronounced "uh"). Children were aided by a two-dimensional line drawing of the oral cavity. Mean scores for each syllable ranged from .8 to 2.0 (on a scale of 4.0). Total mean scores of 28 possible for older children (M= 11.0) was significantly better (t58=-2.2, p<.05) than that for the younger group (M=9.6). A significant r58 of .30 (p< .05) was found between age and total syllables correct. The children described tongue location during the production of isolated syllables. Older children performed the task better, indicating that lingual-tactile awareness is maturational. These findings parallel the 1967 results of McDonald and Aungst who found that identification of oral forms improved across age through about 15 years.

Tactile awareness in children and adults during the production of isolated syllables of English.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether tactile feedback is developmental in nature. 90 subjects were placed into three groups of 30 individuals each (M ages: 6.8, 10.7, and 18.8 yr.). All subjects passed a speech, language, and hearing screening. The procedure involved asking subjects to imitate the production of a syllable, then describe where the tongue was located during that production. Following this request, subjects answered multiple-choice questions regarding (a) tongue height (high to low), (b) tongue position (front to back), (c) contact with teeth, and (d) contact with other structures within the oral cavity. Seven English phonemes (t, k, sh, r, l, and voiceless th) were presented in a consonant vowel (CV) syllable with the neutral schwa vowel. Subjects were aided by a line drawing of the oral cavity. A significant correlation was found between age and total test score. Significant differences were also found among groups on all phonemes with the exception of r and s. All subjects could describe tongue location during the production of isolated syllables. Adults performed the task best, and young children had the most difficulty, indicating that tactile awareness may be maturational. These findings parallel those of McDonald and Aungst who in 1967 found that identification of oral forms improved with age through midadolescence.

Sophisticated and naïve listeners' magnitude estimation scaling judgments of speech intelligibility and speech annoyance.

15 women with formal training in speech and hearing sciences and 15 women with no formal training provided magnitude estimation scaling responses for the intelligibility and annoyance of audiotaped speech samples. Analysis indicated that both groups scaled intelligibility and annoyance the same. As samples became more unintelligible, they also became more annoying.

Effects of race and sex on acoustic features of voice analysis.

This study sought to provide preliminary normative data for the vocal productions of 44 Euro-American and 40 African-American elderly speakers and to test the hypotheses that (1) Euro-American elderly speakers do not have significantly different acoustic parameters of voice from African-American elderly speakers, and (2) elderly male speakers (both Euro-American and African-American) do not have significantly different acoustic parameters of voice from elderly female speakers (both Euro-American and African-American). Voice samples from groups of 44 Euro-American (21 men and 23 women) and 40 African-American (20 men and 20 women) elderly speakers (ages 70 to 80 years) from northeastern Arkansas were compared on measures of 15 selected multidimensional voice profile (KAY Elemetrics) acoustic parameters. Analysis show that Euro-American elderly speakers did not differ significantly from African-American elderly speakers on the measurements of all the selected acoustic parameters of voice, and elderly male speakers as a group differed from elderly female speakers on the measurements of absolute jitter, soft phonation index, and standard deviation of the fundamental frequency as well as fundamental frequency in Hz. The findings suggest it may not be necessary to establish separate acoustic norms of voice for Euro-American and African-American elderly speakers. However, some acoustic parameters of voice are highly sex-dependent, and different norms may be needed for male and female speakers regardless of their racial origins.

Training in lingual awareness during production of isolated syllables of English.

The purpose of this preliminary investigation was to determine the effects of training on lingual awareness during the production of isolated syllables of English. 60 subjects were selected for this investigation. They were placed into two groups of 30 individuals each. Group one (Trained) consisted of individuals who had received training in articulation and phonetics (M age=22.7) Group two (Untrained) consisted of individuals who had not received training in articulation and phonetics (M age= 18.8). The subjects in the Trained group were majors in speech-language pathology. The procedure involved asking subjects to imitate the production of a syllable, then describe where the tongue was located during that production. Following this request, subjects were given four multiple-choice questions to answer regarding (a) tongue height (high to low), (b) tongue position (front to back), (c) contact with the teeth, and (d) contact with other structures within the oral cavity. Mean scores ranged from 1.87 to 3.2 (on a scale of 4.0) for the group of Trained subjects versus 1.5 to 2.4 for the Untrained subjects. The Trained subjects had significantly higher test scores on all phonemes (p<.05) with the exception of r and sh (p>.05). For both groups of subjects, the phonemes, r, sh, and l, were the most difficult to describe, while the phoneme t was described most accurately.

Magnitude-estimation scaling of computerized (digitized) speech under different listening conditions.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the quality of tape-recorded speech sentences and speech sentences digitized at low, moderate, and high sampling rates by young adults under different listening conditions (quiet vs noise) using magnitude-estimation scaling. A single group of 24 young adults participated as subjects. The tape-recorded speech sentences and digitized speech sentences were presented to each subject in quiet and in the presence of background noise at a signal-to-noise ratio of 0 dB. The subjects were instructed to use magnitude-estimation scaling to evaluate these sentences by assigning a number that corresponded to the speech quality of each sentence. An analysis of variance with repeated measures was performed to assess the effects of mode of speech and listening condition on the magnitude-estimation responses. The analysis showed that the main effects for mode of speech and listening condition were statistically significant. The interactions of mode of speech by listening condition were also statistically significant. Pairwise comparisons showed that the magnitude-estimation responses were higher in the quiet condition than in the corresponding noise condition for each level of mode of speech. Based on the results, the implications of the present study and several avenues for later research are discussed.

Comparison of magnitude estimation and interval scaling of loudness.

To identify whether equal-appearing interval or magnitude estimation scaling resulted in a data set with a closer correlation to the physical stimuli involved 20 young adults completing two tasks. In Task 1 subjects used a 7-point equal-appearing interval loudness of 18 10-sec. samples of babble speech, presented randomly at intensities of 5 to 90 dB SPL. In Task 2 subjects used magnitude estimation scaling to rate these stimuli, presented in a randomized order. Analysis showed significantly high correlations for both scaling methods and the stimuli (Spearman rho = 1.00 and .99, respectively). Subjects can use either form of scaling to rate changes in loudness.

Comparisons of magnitude estimation scaling of rock music by children, young adults, and older people.

The present study concerned the perceptual processing of complex auditory stimuli in 10 children (M age = 8.1) as compared to 10 young adults (M age = 19.3) and 10 older adult subjects (M age = 54.2). The auditory stimulus used was 10 sec. of rock music (Led Zeppelin, 1969). All three groups provided numerical responses to nine intensities of the rock music stimulus (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 dB above threshold). Analysis showed that the children reported a wider range of numerical responses than both adult groups. The mean numerical responses for the children ranged from .54 to 54.24. For the young adults the range was .76 to 11.37, and for the older subjects it was 1.6 to 23.31. Results suggest that the children were not bound by the same set of rules as the adults with regard to magnitude estimation scaling of the loudness of the rock music stimulus. Their internal scaling mechanisms appeared to be more flexible and broader based than those of the adults who participated in this study.

Listener ratings of the intelligibility of tracheoesophageal speech in noise.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the extent to which listener ratings of the intelligibility of tracheoesophageal puncture (TEP) speech vary as a function of different signal-to-noise ratios. Fifty college students, 25 men and 25 women (Median age = 19.7 years) participated in the study. They were instructed to assign numbers to audio-recorded speech samples in each of nine signal-to-noise ratio conditions (+65 dB, +20 dB, +15 dB, +10 dB, +5 dB, 0 dB, -5 dB, -10 dB, and -15 dB) in two separate magnitude estimation scaling tasks. During Task 1 the subjects rated the intelligibility of a TEP speech sample. In Task 2 the subjects rated the intelligibility of a normal speech sample. The results indicated that as the levels of background noise increased, listener ratings of intelligibility decreased (F 8,392 = 37.84; p < or = .0001).

Synthetic speech comprehension: a comparison of children with normal and impaired language skills.

This study compared the ability of children with normal language (NL) and children with specific language impairment (SLI) to comprehend natural speech and DECtalk synthetic speech by using a sentence verification task. The effect of listening practice on subjects' ability to comprehend both types of speech also was investigated. Subjects were matched for age and sex. Mean nonverbal intelligence scores of the groups did not differ significantly. Results showed that DECtalk was significantly more difficult for all subjects to comprehend than was natural speech and false sentences were significantly more difficult to comprehend than were true sentences. Response latencies shortened significantly from time 1 to time 2 for all subjects. Subjects with SLI had significantly more difficulty comprehending both natural and synthetic speech than did subjects with NL. Implications these results might have for theories of the underlying cause of specific language impairment are discussed.

Factors related to magnitude estimation scaling of complex auditory stimuli: aging.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of aging on magnitude estimation scaling of the loudness of complex auditory stimuli in the form of rock music. The subjects were 10 young adults (M age = 19.3 yr.), and 10 older individuals (M age = 54.2 yr.). The older individuals' mean numerical responses suggested that they perceived the rock music stimuli as louder for all nine suprathreshold intensities tested. The older group of subjects may have perceived the suprathreshold stimulus intensities as being louder because of physical and affective changes that naturally occur in central auditory processing during the aging process.

Comparison of listeners' judgments of simulated and authentic stuttering using magnitude estimation scaling.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether normal listeners can differentiate authentic and simulated stuttering. The subjects were 40 graduate and undergraduate students in hearing and speech sciences who were asked to listen to segments of authentic and simulated stuttered speech at varying severities. Using magnitude estimation scaling, each subject was asked to judge the samples of stuttered speech by providing a numerical response that matched the severity of the segment listened to. Analysis showed that the subjects discriminated between different severities of both the authentic and stuttered speech. They did not differentiate between authentic segments of stuttered speech and simulated ones.

Magnitude estimation scaling of the loudness of a wide range of auditory stimuli.

The study of the perception of loudness lends itself well to the psychophysical scaling technique of magnitude estimation. This study was designed to extend the range of auditory stimuli used to study the magnitude estimation scaling of loudness. The five stimuli chosen were a 1000-Hz pure tone, narrow band noise (700-1300 Hz band width), broad band noise (100-10,000 Hz band width), rock music, and babble speech, i.e., speech in which meaning is not discernible because several individuals are talking at once. Subjects were 30 normal young women (M = 19 yr.). During the auditory magnitude-estimation task for each of the five stimuli, a subject was instructed to assign numbers to stimulus presented in a randomly ordered series of nine sensation levels (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, and 90 dB SL). Multivariate analysis of variance for repeated measures indicated there were no significant differences in the numerical responses of the subjects for the five stimuli. A possible explanation for these results is the presence of an underlying stabilizing factor (internal scaling mechanism) that allows adults to scale loudness consistently irrespective of the type of auditory stimulus.

Magnitude estimation scaling of annoyance in response to rock music: effects of sex and listeners' preference.

The present study parallels an earlier one Fucci, Petrosino, and Banks in 1994 concerned with sex and listeners' preference effects on magnitude estimation scaling of rock music. The difference between the two studies is that the subjects in 1994 were asked to scale "loudness" while the present subjects were asked to scale "annoyance." The prior results and those of the present study were different, i.e., the women's preference appeared influential in the magnitude estimation scaling of rock music previously but here the men's preference appeared influential. If subjects are instructed to judge the annoyance of an auditory signal, they may respond differently than if asked to judge its loudness. Judgments of annoyance appear to be more context dependent whereas loudness judgments may reflect a perceptual process more closely related to physical aspects of the signal.

Effect of visual cuing on synthetic speech intelligibility: a comparison of native and nonnative speakers of English.

This study compared the effect of visual cuing on the intelligibility of DECtalk for native and nonnative speakers of English in both ideal listening conditions and in the presence of background noise at a signal to noise (S/N) ratio of + 10dB. Visual cuing improved DECtalk's intelligibility for nonnative speakers more than for native speakers, especially in the background noise condition. Implications of these findings and the need for further research are discussed.

Magnitude-estimation scaling of complex auditory stimuli: native and nonnative languages.

50 subjects used magnitude-estimation scaling to rate 11 languages on two subjective perceptual tasks. On Task 1, the subjects rated languages according to how similar they were to their native language (English). In Task 2, the subjects rated languages according to how much they like them. Analysis showed a high over-all correlation between how similar subjects felt the languages were to their native language and how much they liked them (Pearson product-correlation r = .86). The high correlation indicates consistency in subjects' scaling responses. This consistency may suggest that magnitude estimation is an appropriate method for scaling complex auditory stimuli represented by various attributes of native and nonnative languages.

Effects of gender on listeners' judgments of speech intelligibility.

Effects of gender on listeners' judgments of intelligibility were investigated. Subjects (15 women; 15 men) provided magnitude-estimation scaling responses and over-all impression of the intelligibility of a male and female speaker's comparable versions of audiotaped speech samples varying systematically in terms of the number of phonemes produced correctly. There was no significant difference between male and female subjects' magnitude-estimation scaling responses; however, their over-all impressions of the intelligibility of the speakers tended to differ. Women indicated that the male speaker was more understandable, and men indicated that the female speaker was more understandable. Magnitude-estimation scaling may provide an objective means for evaluating a speaker's intelligibility. It appears to transcend gender-biases associated with judgments of speech intelligibility.

The effect of preference for three different types of music on magnitude estimation-scaling behavior in young adults.

The purpose of the present study was to assess the effect of preference for three different types of music on magnitude estimation scaling behavior in young adults. Three groups of college students, 10 who liked rock music, 10 who liked big band music, and 10 who liked classical music were tested. Subjects were instructed to assign numerical values to a random series of nine suprathreshold intensity levels of 10-sec, samples of rock music, big band music, and classical music. Analysis indicated that subjects who liked rock music scaled that stimulus differently from those subjects who liked big band and classical music. Subjects who liked big band music scaled that stimulus differently from those subjects who liked rock music and classical music. All subjects scaled classical music similarly regardless of their musical preferences. Results are discussed in reference to the literature concerned with personality and preference as well as spectrographic analyses of the three different types of music used in this study.

Linguistic aspects of magnitude-estimation scaling of instrumental music, instrumental music with vocal accompaniment, and spoken lyrics.

An analysis of variance of magnitude estimates of loudness of three different types of complex auditory stimuli, instrumental music, instrumental music with vocal accompaniment, and spoken lyrics showed, for 100 young adults, no differences for the types of stimuli. The linguistic aspects of these complex auditory stimuli do not differentially influence loudness judgments.

Oral vibrotactile assessment procedures: modifications.

An ongoing process to develop oral vibrotactile instrumentation that can be standardized and used in practical assessment of the oral tactile sensory system was reported in The International Journal of Orofacial Myology in March, 1990, by Fucci, Petrosino, and Harris. The material presented in the present article reflects the current research and future direction that the development of this instrumentation is taking. Potential benefits of this instrumentation for individuals working in the area of orofacial myofunctional disorders are suggested.