Novel shielding materials for space and air travel.

The reduction of dose onboard spacecraft and aircraft by appropriate shielding measures plays an essential role in the future development of space exploration and air travel. The design of novel shielding strategies and materials may involve hydrogenous composites, as it is well known that liquid hydrogen is most effective in attenuating charged particle radiation. As precursor for a later flight experiment, the shielding properties of newly developed hydrogen-rich polymers and rare earth-doped high-density rubber were tested in various ground-based neutron and heavy ion fields and compared with aluminium and polyethylene as reference materials. Absorbed dose, average linear energy transfer and gamma-equivalent neutron absorbed dose were determined by means of LiF:Mg,Ti thermoluminescence dosemeters and CR-39 plastic nuclear track detectors. First results for samples of equal aerial density indicate that selected hydrogen-rich plastics and rare-earth-doped rubber may be more effective in attenuating cosmic rays by up to 10% compared with conventional aluminium shielding. The appropriate adaptation of shielding thicknesses may thus allow reducing the biologically relevant dose. Owing to the lower density of the plastic composites, mass savings shall result in a significant reduction of launch costs. The experiment was flown as part of the European Space Agency's Biopan-5 mission in May 2005.

Dose distribution in the Russian Segment of the International Space Station.

Absorbed dose and average linear energy transfer (LET) were assessed by means of (7)LiF:Mg,Ti (TLD-700) thermoluminescent (TL) detectors for different panels on-board the Russian Segment of the International Space Station in the timeframe between March and November 2002 (233 d). A technique is presented to correct the measured absorbed dose values for TL efficiency in the radiation climate on-board the spacecraft. Average LET is determined from the high-temperature TL emission in the TLD-700 glow curve and used as a parameter in the TL efficiency correction. Depending on the shielding distribution, the efficiency-corrected absorbed dose varies between 154 +/- 5 microGy d(-1) in panel no. 327 (core block ceiling) and 191 +/- 3 microGy d(-1) in panel no. 110 (core block central axis, floor). The experimental data are compared with the model calculations by using detailed shielding distributions and orbit parameters as inputs.

Application of the high-temperature ratio method for evaluation of the depth distribution of dose equivalent in a water-filled phantom on board space station Mir.

A water-filled tissue equivalent phantom with a diameter of 35 cm was developed at the Institute for Biomedical Problems. Moscow. Russia. It contains four channels perpendicular to each other, where dosemeters can be exposed at different depths. Between May 1997 and February 1999 the phantom was installed at three different locations on board the Mir space station. Thermoluminescence dosemeters (TLDs) were exposed at various depths inside the phantom either parallel or perpendicular to the hull of the spacecraft. The high-temperature ratio (HTR) method was used for the evaluation of the TLDs. The method was developed at the Atominstitute of the Austrian Universities. Vienna, Austria, and has already been used for measurements in mixed radiation fields on earth and in space with great success. It uses the changes of peak height ratios in LiF:Mg,Ti glow curves in dependence on the linear energy transfer (LET), and therefore allows determination of an 'averaged' LET as well as measurement of the absorbed dose. A mean quality factor and, subsequently, the dose equivalent can be calculated according to the Q(LETinfinity) relationship proposed by the ICRP. The small size of the LiF dosemeters means that the HTR method can be used to determine the gradient of absorbed dose and dose equivalent inside the tissue equivalent body.

Measurement of the depth distribution of average LET and absorbed dose inside a water-filled phantom on board space station MIR.

The Atominstitute of the Austrian Universities developed the HTR-method for determination of absorbed dose and "averaged" linear energy transfer (LET) in mixed radiation fields. The method was applied with great success during several space missions (e.g. STS-60, STS-63, BION-10 and BION-11) and on space station MIR in the past 10 years. It utilises the changes of peak height ratios in LiF thermoluminescent glowcurves in dependence on the LET. Due to the small size of these dosemeters the HTR-method can be used also for measurements inside tissue equivalent phantoms. A water filled phantom with a diameter of 35 cm containing four channels where dosemeters can be exposed in different depths was developed by the Institute for Biomedical Problems. This opens the possibility to measure the depth distribution of the average LET and the dose equivalent simultaneously. During phase 1 dosemeters were exposed for 271 days (05.1997-02.1998) in 6 different depths inside the phantom, which was positioned in the commander cabin. In phase 2 dosemeters were exposed in 2 channels in 6 different depths for 102 days (05.1998-08.1998) in the board engineer cabin, following an exposure in different channels in 3 different depths for 199 days (08.1998- 02.1999) in the Modul KWANT 2.

Measurements of the equivalent dose in aircraft with TLDS.

For measurements of the equivalent dose of the mixed radiation fields in aircraft many different measuring devices are usually necessary for consideration of the different components of the radiation field. The possibility is discussed of using thermoluminescence dosemeters (TLDS) for determination of absorbed dose and average LET of this complex radiation field in aircraft. The HTR method, developed for determination of the equivalent dose in spacecraft, enables the measurement of the average LET in addition to the absorbed dose. Furthermore, a rem counter based on TLDs and a modified pair method (TLD-600, TLD-700) was used for determination of the absorbed dose due to the neutron component. Using small TLD crystals it is possible to obtain the depth distribution of absorbed dose and average LET by exposing TLDs in Bonner spheres with different diameters. The results indicate that the standards for determination of the effective dose may not be applicable in these mixed radiation fields in aircraft.

Determination of the absorbed dose and the average LET of space radiation in dependence on shielding conditions.

The HTR method, developed for determination of absorbed dose and average LET of mixed radiation fields in space, was applied during several space missions on space station MIR, space shuttles and satellites. The method utilises the changes of peak height ratios in the glow curves in dependence on the linear energy transfer LET. Due to the small size of the dosemeters the evaluation of the variation of absorbed dose and average LET in dependence on the position of the dosemeters inside the space station is possible. The dose and LET distribution was determined during the experiment ADLET where dosemeters were exposed in two positions with different shielding conditions and during two following experiments (MIR-95, MIR-96) using six positions inside the space station. The results were compared with the shielding conditions of the positions. Calculations of the absorbed dose were carried out for comparison. Results have shown that the average LET increases with increasing absorbing thickness while the absorbed dose decreases.

Intercomparison of radiation measurements on STS-63.

A joint NASA Russia study of the radiation environment inside the Space Shuttle was performed on STS-63. This was the second flight under the Shuttle-Mir Science Program (Phase 1). The Shuttle was launched on 2 February 1995, in a 51.65 degrees inclination orbit and landed at Kennedy Space Center on 11 February 1995, for a total flight duration of 8.27 days. The Shuttle carried a complement of both passive and active detectors distributed throughout the Shuttle volume. The crew exposure varied from 1962 to 2790 microGy with an average of 2265.8 microGy or 273.98 microGy/day. Crew exposures varied by a factor of 1.4, which is higher than usual for STS mission. The flight altitude varied from 314 to 395 km and provided a unique opportunity to obtain dose variation with altitude. Measurements of the average east-west dose variation were made using two active solid state detectors. The dose rate in the Spacehab locker, measured using a tissue equivalent proportional counter (TEPC), was 413.3 microGy/day, consistent with measurements made using thermoluminescent detectors (TLDs) in the same locker. The average quality factor was 2.33, and although it was higher than model calculations, it was consistent with values derived from high temperature peaks in TLDs. The dose rate due to galactic cosmic radiation was 110.6 microGy/day and agreed with model calculations. The dose rate from trapped particles was 302.7 microGy/day, nearly a factor of 2 lower than the prediction of the AP8 model. The neutrons in the intermediate energy range of 1-20 MeV contributed 13 microGy/day and 156 microSv/day, respectively. Analysis of data from the charged particle spectrometer has not yet been completed.