Experimental Approach Reveals the Role of alx1 in the Evolution of the Echinoderm Larval Skeleton.

Over the course of evolution, the acquisition of novel structures has ultimately led to wide variation in morphology among extant multicellular organisms. Thus, the origins of genetic systems for new morphological structures are a subject of great interest in evolutionary biology. The larval skeleton is a novel structure acquired in some echinoderm lineages via the activation of the adult skeletogenic machinery. Previously, VEGF signaling was suggested to have played an important role in the acquisition of the larval skeleton. In the present study, we compared expression patterns of Alx genes among echinoderm classes to further explore the factors involved in the acquisition of a larval skeleton. We found that the alx1 gene, originally described as crucial for sea urchin skeletogenesis, may have also played an essential role in the evolution of the larval skeleton. Unlike those echinoderms that have a larval skeleton, we found that alx1 of starfish was barely expressed in early larvae that have no skeleton. When alx1 overexpression was induced via injection of alx1 mRNA into starfish eggs, the expression patterns of certain genes, including those possibly involved in skeletogenesis, were altered. This suggested that a portion of the skeletogenic program was induced solely by alx1. However, we observed no obvious external phenotype or skeleton. We concluded that alx1 was necessary but not sufficient for the acquisition of the larval skeleton, which, in fact, requires several genetic events. Based on these results, we discuss how the larval expression of alx1 contributed to the acquisition of the larval skeleton in the putative ancestral lineage of echinoderms.

Functional evolution of Ets in echinoderms with focus on the evolution of echinoderm larval skeletons.

Convergent evolution of echinoderm pluteus larva was examined from the standpoint of functional evolution of a transcription factor Ets1/2. In sea urchins, Ets1/2 plays a central role in the differentiation of larval skeletogenic mesenchyme cells. In addition, Ets1/2 is suggested to be involved in adult skeletogenesis. Conversely, in starfish, although no skeletogenic cells differentiate during larval development, Ets1/2 is also expressed in the larval mesoderm. Here, we confirmed that the starfish Ets1/2 is indispensable for the differentiation of the larval mesoderm. This result led us to assume that, in the common ancestors of echinoderms, Ets1/2 activates the transcription of distinct gene sets, one for the differentiation of the larval mesoderm and the other for the development of the adult skeleton. Thus, the acquisition of the larval skeleton involved target switching of Ets1/2. Specifically, in the sea urchin lineage, Ets1/2 activated a downstream target gene set for skeletogenesis during larval development in addition to a mesoderm target set. We examined whether this heterochronic activation of the skeletogenic target set was achieved by the molecular evolution of the Ets1/2 transcription factor itself. We tested whether starfish Ets1/2 induced skeletogenesis when injected into sea urchin eggs. We found that, in addition to ectopic induction of mesenchyme cells, starfish Ets1/2 can activate some parts of the skeletogenic pathway in these mesenchyme cells. Thus, we suggest that the nature of the transcription factor Ets1/2 did not change, but rather that some unidentified co-factor(s) for Ets1/2 may distinguish between targets for the larval mesoderm and for skeletogenesis. Identification of the co-factor(s) will be key to understanding the molecular evolution underlying the evolution of the pluteus larvae.