First report of zoonotic Cryptosporidium parvum GP60 subtypes IIaA15G2R1 and IIaA16G3R1 in wild ponies from the northern Iberian Peninsula.

Studies on the prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium spp. affecting feral horses are scarce. The highland areas of the northern Iberian Peninsula are home to a large population of wild ponies which generally roam free in the ancient natural range and are subjected to a traditional exploitation regime. In the present study, a total of 79 non-diarrhoeal faecal samples from the wild ponies were collected from the ground immediately after defecation. Cryptosporidium was detected in 10 of the samples (12.6%) by a direct immunofluorescence antibody test and DNA amplification and sequencing. Analysis of partial sequences of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU-rRNA) and heat shock protein (hsp70) loci revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium parvum. In addition, amplification and sequencing of a fragment of the 60-kDa glycoprotein (GP60) locus identified C. parvum subtypes IIaA15G2R1 and IIaA16G3R1. This study reports, for the first time, the occurrence of C. parvum in wild ponies in Europe, specifically in the northern Iberian Peninsula. Identification of the common subtype IIaA15G2R1 and also subtype IIaA16G3R1 (first description) indicates that these hosts may play a role in the sylvatic transmission of C. parvum and that they may act as a reservoir of zoonotic cryptosporidiosis.

Detection and molecular characterization of Giardia and Cryptosporidium in common dolphins (Delphinus delphis) stranded along the Galician coast (Northwest Spain).

The ubiquitous protozoan parasites Giardia and Cryptosporidium have been detected from many species of captive and free-living wildlife, representing most mammalian orders. Twenty species of marine mammals have been reported to inhabit Galician waters and the region has one of the highest rates of stranding in Europe. Evidence from stranding, reported by-catches and sightings, suggests that the common dolphin (Delphinus delphis) is the most abundant cetacean on the Galician coast (Northwest Spain). The objective of this study was to detect and molecularly characterize isolates of Giardia and Cryptosporidium obtained from common dolphins stranded in this area. Between 2005 and 2012, sections of large intestine from 133 common dolphins stranded along the Galician coast were collected by the personnel of the Galician Stranding Network (Coordinadora para o Estudo dos Mamíferos Mariños, CEMMA). Using direct immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) and PCR amplification and sequencing of the SSU-rDNA, ß-giardin genes and the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region, Giardia and Cryptosporidium were detected in 8 (6.0%) and 12 samples (9.0%), respectively. In two samples, co-infection by both parasites was observed. The molecular characterization revealed the presence of Giardia duodenalis assemblages A (genotypes A1 and A2) and B and Cryptosporidium parvum in these samples. This constitutes the first study in which the presence of Giardia and Cryptosporidium has been investigated in common dolphins on the European Atlantic coast, and it is also the first report of C. parvum in this host. Our findings indicate that these animals could act as reservoir of these waterborne parasites or could be victims of the contamination originated by anthropogenic activities.

Comparison of different solar reactors for household disinfection of drinking water in developing countries: evaluation of their efficacy in relation to the waterborne enteropathogen Cryptosporidium parvum.

Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a type of treatment that can significantly improve the microbiological quality of drinking water at household level and therefore prevent waterborne diseases in developing countries. Cryptosporidium parvum is an obligate protozoan parasite responsible for the diarrhoeal disease cryptosporidiosis in humans and animals. Recently, this parasite has been selected by the WHO as a reference pathogen for protozoan parasites in the evaluation of household water treatment options. In this study, the field efficacy of different static solar reactors [1.5 l transparent plastic polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles as well as 2.5 l borosilicate glass and 25 l methacrylate reactors fitted with compound parabolic concentrators (CPC)] for solar disinfection of turbid waters experimentally contaminated with C. parvum oocysts was compared. Potential oocyst viability was determined by inclusion/exclusion of the fluorogenic vital dye propidium iodide. The results demonstrate that static solar reactors fitted with CPCs are an excellent alternative to the conventional SODIS method with PET bottles. These reactors improved the efficacy of the SODIS method by enabling larger volumes of water to be treated and, in some cases, the C. parvum oocysts were rendered totally unviable, minimising the negative effects of turbidity.

Speeding up the solar water disinfection process (SODIS) against Cryptosporidium parvum by using 2.5l static solar reactors fitted with compound parabolic concentrators (CPCs).

Water samples of 0, 5, and 100 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU) spiked with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts were exposed to natural sunlight in 2.5l static borosilicate solar reactors fitted with two different compound parabolic concentrators (CPCs), CPC1 and CPC1.89, with concentration factors of the solar radiation of 1 and 1.89, respectively. The global oocyst viability was calculated by the evaluation of the inclusion/exclusion of the fluorogenic vital dye propidium iodide and the spontaneous excystation. Thus, the initial global oocyst viability of the C. parvum isolate used was 95.3 ± 1.6%. Using the solar reactors fitted with CPC1, the global viability of oocysts after 12h of exposure was zero in the most turbid water samples (100 NTU) and almost zero in the other water samples (0.3 ± 0.0% for 0 NTU and 0.5 ± 0.2% for 5 NTU). Employing the solar reactors fitted with CPC1.89, after 10h exposure, the global oocyst viability was zero in the non-turbid water samples (0 NTU), and it was almost zero in the 5 NTU water samples after 8h of exposure (0.5 ± 0.5%). In the most turbid water samples (100 NTU), the global viability was 1.9 ± 0.6% after 10 and 12h of exposure. In conclusion, the use of these 2.5l static solar reactors fitted with CPCs significantly improved the efficacy of the SODIS technique as these systems shorten the exposure times to solar radiation, and also minimize the negative effects of turbidity. This technology therefore represents a good alternative method for improving the microbiological quality of household drinking water in developing countries.

Efficacy of the solar water disinfection method in turbid waters experimentally contaminated with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under real field conditions.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the efficacy of the solar water disinfection (SODIS) method for inactivating Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in turbid waters using 1.5 l polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles under natural sunlight. METHODS: All experiments were performed at the Plataforma Solar de Almería, located in the Tabernas Desert (Southern Spain) in July and October 2007. Turbid water samples [5, 100 and 300 nephelometric turbidity units (NTU)] were prepared by addition of red soil to distilled water, and then spiked with purified C. parvum oocysts. PET bottles containing the contaminated turbid waters were exposed to full sunlight for 4, 8 and 12 h. The samples were then concentrated by filtration and the oocyst viability was determined by inclusion/exclusion of the fluorogenic vital dye propidium iodide. Results After an exposure time of 12 h (cumulative global dose of 28.28 MJ/m(2); cumulative UV dose of 1037.06 kJ/m(2)) the oocyst viabilities were 11.54%, 25.96%, 41.50% and 52.80% for turbidity levels of 0, 5, 100 and 300 NTU, respectively, being significantly lower than the viability of the initial isolate (P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: SODIS method significantly reduced the potential viability of C. parvum oocysts on increasing the percentage of oocysts that took up the dye PI (indicator of cell wall integrity), although longer exposure periods appear to be required than those established for the bacterial pathogens usually tested in SODIS assays. SODIS.

Excystation of Cryptosporidium parvum at temperatures that are reached during solar water disinfection.

Species belonging to the genera Cryptosporidium are recognized as waterborne pathogens. Solar water disinfection (SODIS) is a simple method that involves the use of solar radiation to destroy pathogenic microorganisms that cause waterborne diseases. A notable increase in water temperature and the existence of a large number of empty or partially excysted (i.e. unviable) oocysts have been observed in previous SODIS studies with water experimentally contaminated with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts under field conditions. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effect of the temperatures that can be reached during exposure of water samples to natural sunlight (37-50 degrees C), on the excystation of C. parvum in the absence of other stimuli. In samples exposed to 40-48 degrees C, a gradual increase in the percentage of excystation was observed as the time of exposure increased and a maximum of 53.81% of excystation was obtained on exposure of the water to a temperature of 46 degrees C for 12 h (versus 8.80% initial isolate). Under such conditions, the oocyst infectivity evaluated in a neonatal murine model decreased statistically with respect to the initial isolate (19.38% versus 100%). The results demonstrate the important effect of the temperature on the excystation of C. parvum and therefore on its viability and infectivity.

Multilocus genetic analysis of Cryptosporidium in naturally contaminated bivalve molluscs.

AIMS: To evaluate the application of discriminatory multilocus PCR procedures for the characterization of Cryptosporidium in samples of naturally contaminated bivalve molluscan shellfish. METHODS AND RESULTS: Nucleic acid was extracted from 22 shellfish previously identified as contaminated with Cryptosporidium spp. and subjected to PCR-based analysis for two independent fragments of the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein (COWP) gene, three microsatellite markers (ML 1, GP 15 and MS 5) and an extra-chromosomal small double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). Overall, at least one COWP gene fragment was amplified from all 22 samples, 21 amplified the dsRNA and 14 at least one of the three microsatellite loci. More than one dsRNA or microsatellite allele was detected in 50% of samples. The majority of samples were contaminated with Cryptosporidium parvum types circulating in both humans and livestock. A novel dsRNA element was identified in one sample, which did not amplify any of the three microsatellite loci investigated. CONCLUSIONS: Multilocus analysis of Cryptosporidium can be applied to DNA extracted from naturally contaminated shellfish. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY: This multilocus genetic analysis highlights that filter feeder molluscs are a potential source of cryptosporidial oocysts, which may be infectious to humans.

An outbreak of disease associated with cryptosporidia on a red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) game farm.

An outbreak of disease associated with cryptosporidia on a red-legged partridge (Alectoris rufa) game farm is described. Morbidity (diarrhoea and cough) was between 60% and 70% during the first weeks of life (4 to 25 days) and mortality was higher than 50%. The results of bacteriological and virological analyses were negative. Histological examination and antigenic diagnosis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent analysis revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium spp. in respiratory and intestinal tracts. The application of polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism techniques and sequencing of a Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein gene fragment confirmed the existence of Cryptosporidium meleagridis in faecal samples. The results obtained suggest that avian cryptosporidiosis should be included among respiratory and enteric diseases routinely tested for in farmed birds.

Possible involvement of Artemia as live diet in the transmission of cryptosporidiosis in cultured fish.

The viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts ingested by Artemia franciscana metanauplii was evaluated using two fluorogenic vital dyes. There was no significant difference (p = 0.09) between the viability of oocysts maintained in saline (control) and those recovered from the digestive tract of the microcrustacean 24 h after ingestion (95 vs 90% viable oocysts). The results suggest that Artemia, used as a life food in fish larviculture, may act as a vehicle for transmission of piscine cryptosporidiosis caused by Cryptosporidium molnari and Cryptosporidium scophthalmi.

Acanthamoeba as a temporal vehicle of Cryptosporidium.

The capacity of Acanthamoeba to predate Cryptosporidium oocysts was demonstrated. A maximum of six oocysts per Acanthamoeba trophozoite were detected, and a slow elimination of the internalized oocysts to the surrounding culture medium was observed. Free-living amoebae may act as carriers of Cryptosporidium oocysts and, thus, may play an important role in the transmission of cryptosporidiosis.

First report of Cryptosporidium parvum 'ferret' genotype in American mink (Mustela vison Shreber 1777).

A total of 51 faecal samples from wild and farmed mink were analysed by a direct immunofluorescence antibody test. Cryptosporidium oocysts were identified in eight, apparently healthy, farmed American mink (Mustela vison). The isolates were identified as Cryptosporidium parvum 'ferret' genotype by PCR-RFLP and sequencing analysis of a 341-base-pair fragment of the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein (COWP) gene. This is the first report of Cryptosporidium in American mink.

Characterisation of a Cryptosporidium isolate from water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) by sequencing of a fragment of the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein gene (COWP).

Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected using a direct immunofluorescence antibody test in the faeces of an asymptomatic water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) heifer from a dairy farm close to Santiago de Compostela (NW Spain). Oocysts were morphologically indistinguishable from Cryptosporidium parvum. Using DNA extracted from this sample and a PCR-RFLP analysis of a 341 base pairs fragment of the Cryptosporidium oocyst wall protein (COWP) gene, a previously undescribed fragment pattern was generated. The COWP gene fragment was cloned and sequencing analyses revealed it to be similar to the C. parvum 'pig' genotype but with four base pairs substitutions.

A histological study of the transit of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts through clams (Tapes decussatus).

A histological study was carried out to investigate the transit of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts through the clam Tapes decussatus. Spat of approximately 5-7 mm shell length were maintained in a tank of natural sea water contaminated with purified C. parvum oocysts. The experiment lasted 240 h and, every 24 h, five specimens were killed, placed in Bouin's fixative, and processed routinely for histological examination. Sections (3 mum) cut from the all body tissues were stained with modified Gomori's trichrome for their accurate identification; the oocysts were detected by a direct immunofluorescence procedure. Oocysts were detected in siphons, gills, stomach, digestive diverticula, and intestine. The oocysts present in the intestine were free or mixed with the intestinal contents; therefore release of these oocysts with the feces should favour dissemination of contamination. Oocysts were found in branchial mucus and within the interfilamentary spaces, which suggests the occurrence of repeated filtrations and the possibility that the retained oocysts maintain their infective capacity.

Detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in molluscan shellfish by multiplexed nested-PCR.

A multiplexed nested-PCR procedure (ABC-PCR) previously developed to detect Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis assemblages A and B in whole human faeces was applied to DNA extracted from filter-feeding molluscs. Species of Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis were identified by restriction fragment analysis of the PCR products and by DNA sequencing. The extraction and ABC-PCR procedures were shown to be suitable for application to shellfish by amplification of specific target sequences using DNA from Cryptosporidium parvum genotype 2 and G. duodenalis assemblages A and B which were spiked into DNA extracted from mussels. Using 49 molluscan shellfish specimens (18 clam, 22 mussel and 9 oyster samples) from Spain, cryptosporidial oocysts were detected in 56% by immunofluorescence microscopy, and in 44% by ABC-PCR. For detection of Cryptosporidium, there was a significant association, but not total agreement, between the results of microscopy and PCR. G. duodenalis assemblage B was detected from one oyster sample by PCR. Amongst 38 specimens (20 mussel and 18 cockle samples) collected in the UK and tested by the ABC-PCR, G. duodenalis was not detected, and Cryptosporidium was detected in 11% of the samples. Overall, the 26 samples where Cryptosporidium was detected, C. hominis/C. parvum genotype 1 was detected in 1, C. parvum genotype 2 in 22, and the remaining three samples contained either sequences similar to C. parvum genotype 2 or heterogeneous mixtures of Cryptosporidium species. There was no significant association between the level of Escherichia coli detected by conventional microbiological methods and the presence of Cryptosporidium detected by ABC-PCR.

Anticryptosporidial activity of furan derivative G1 and its inclusion complex with beta-cyclodextrin.

The capacity of beta-cyclodextrin (betaCD) to form a complex with a new furanic derivative, G1, was investigated. Interactions of the drug and betaCD in solution and in the solid state were studied using phase solubility techniques, thermal methods, X-ray, and IR spectroscopy. Preparation of a kneaded mix of G1/betaCD increased both the aqueous solubility and the dissolution rate of the furan derivative. The anticryptosporidial efficacies of the drug and of the inclusion complex were evaluated using a suckling murine model. Oral administration of G1 considerably decreased the intensity of the infection, but betaCD showed similar anticryptosporidial activity to that of the betaCD-G1 complex and higher activity than G1 alone.

Contamination of bivalve molluscs by Cryptosporidium oocysts: the need for new quality control standards.

A yearlong study was carried out to investigate the presence and viability of Cryptosporidium oocysts in 203 samples of cultured shellfish from Galicia (NW Spain) and 38 samples imported from other European Union (EU) countries. Shellfish samples included mussels, oysters, clams and cockles. Cryptosporidium oocysts were detected, using a direct immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT), in 34.4% of the samples analyzed; use of the fluorogenic dye propidium iodide (PI) revealed viable potentially infective oocysts in 53.0% of these samples. There was no relation between the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts and the microbiological contamination detected in the samples expressed as Most-Probable-Number (MPN) of fecal coliforms, the different species of mollusc, or the month of sampling. One important finding was that the depuration process was ineffective in totally removing oocyst contamination. Furthermore, the existence of viable oocysts in samples with microbiological contamination levels lower than 300 fecal coliforms/100 g, which in accordance with current legislation are considered suitable for human consumption, suggests the need to include parasitological analyses in the quality control for these molluscs.

Environmental dispersal of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts and cross transmission in cultured bivalve molluscs.

Two commercially valuable mollusc species ( Ostrea edulisand Tapes decussatus) were experimentally contaminated with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. A direct immunofluorescent antibody technique and inclusion/exclusion of the fluorogenic vital dye propidium iodide were used to test for the presence and viability of the oocysts, showing that transmission of contamination occurred between coexisting species. There was a decrease in the viability of oocysts in the initially uncontaminated molluscs as well as a large decrease in the number of oocysts retained when dead molluscs were used as the source of contamination. The results show the potentially important role that these molluscs play in spreading contamination in depuration plants and areas where aquatic organisms are cultivated.

Survival of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts recovered from experimentally contaminated oysters (Ostrea edulis) and clams (Tapes decussatus).

Samples of two species of shellfish that form part of the human food chain (the oyster Ostrea edulis and the marine clam Tapes decussatus) were experimentally contaminated with Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Changes in the viability of oocysts subsequently recovered from the shellfish were evaluated by means of an immunofluorescent antibody technique (IFAT) and inclusion/exclusion of the fluorogenic vital dye propidium iodide. There was a sharp decrease in oocyst viability during the first 4 days, with 15-25% viable oocysts remaining thereafter. In addition the infectivity of these oocysts at 10 and 31 days post-contamination was demonstrated using a suckling murine model.