Conversion of monoculture cropland and open grassland to agroforestry alters the abundance of soil bacteria, fungi and soil-N-cycling genes.

Integration of trees in agroforestry systems can increase the system sustainability compared to monocultures. The resulting increase in system complexity is likely to affect soil-N cycling by altering soil microbial community structure and functions. Our study aimed to assess the abundance of genes encoding enzymes involved in soil-N cycling in paired monoculture and agroforestry cropland in a Phaeozem soil, and paired open grassland and agroforestry grassland in Histosol and Anthrosol soils. The soil fungi-to-bacteria ratio was greater in the tree row than in the crop or grass rows of the monoculture cropland and open grassland in all soil types, possibly due to increased input of tree residues and the absence of tillage in the Phaeozem (cropland) soil. In the Phaeozem (cropland) soil, gene abundances of amoA indicated a niche differentiation between archaeal and bacterial ammonia oxidizers that distinctly separated the influence of the tree row from the crop row and monoculture system. Abundances of nitrate (napA and narG), nitrite (nirK and nirS) and nitrous oxide reductase genes (nosZ clade I) were largely influenced by soil type rather than management system. The soil types' effects were associated with their differences in soil organic C, total N and pH. Our findings show that in temperate regions, conversion of monoculture cropland and open grassland to agroforestry systems can alter the abundance of soil bacteria and fungi and soil-N-cycling genes, particularly genes involved in ammonium oxidation.

The Role of Low Soil Temperature for Photosynthesis and Stomatal Conductance of Three Graminoids From Different Elevations.

In high-elevation grasslands, plants can encounter periods with high air temperature while the soil remains cold, which may lead to a temporary mismatch in the physiological activity of leaves and roots. In a climate chamber experiment with graminoid species from three elevations (4400, 2400, and 250 m a.s.l.), we tested the hypothesis that soil temperature can influence photosynthesis and stomatal conductance independently of air temperature. Soil monoliths with swards of Kobresia pygmaea (high alpine), Nardus stricta (lower alpine), and Deschampsia flexuosa (upper lowland) were exposed to soil temperatures of 25, 15, 5, and -2°C and air temperatures of 20 and 10°C for examining the effect of independent soil and air temperature variation on photosynthesis, leaf dark respiration, and stomatal conductance and transpiration. Soil frost (-2°C) had a strong negative effect on gas exchange and stomatal conductance in all three species, independent of the elevation of origin. Leaf dark respiration was stimulated by soil frost in D. flexuosa, but not in K. pygmaea, which also had a lower temperature optimum of photosynthesis. Soil cooling from 15 to 5°C did not significantly reduce stomatal conductance and gas exchange in any of the species. We conclude that all three graminoids are able to maintain a relatively high root water uptake in cold, non-frozen soil, but the high-alpine K. pygmaea seems to be especially well adapted to warm shoot - cold root episodes, as it has a higher photosynthetic activity at 10 than 20°C air temperature and does not up-regulate leaf dark respiration upon soil freezing, as was observed in the grasses from warmer climates.