Atrazine characterization: An update on uses, monitoring, effects, and environmental impact, for the development of regulatory policies in Argentina.

Atrazine (ATZ) is the third most widely used herbicide in Argentina (10 000 t year-1 ) and is approved for sugar cane, flax, corn, sorghum, and tea. An assessment of the ATZ environmental impacts was conducted at the request of the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development of Argentina. A review of 541 national and international technical and scientific reports and a survey among agricultural technicians, applicators, and producers was done. The survey revealed that 94% of ATZ applications are terrestrial and use diversion exists, associated mainly with soybean cultivation. Atrazine was reported at high frequencies (50%-100%) in surface and groundwater, sediments, and soils, sometimes exceeding permitted limits. Several sublethal effects induced by ATZ on invertebrate and vertebrate species were found, sometimes at concentrations lower than those in water quality guidelines (<3 µg L-1 ) or the environmental concentrations found in Argentina. Available epidemiological or human health studies of local populations are extremely scarce. This assessment also demonstrated that herbicides are ubiquitous in the environment. The investigation highlights the need for further studies assessing the adverse effects of ATZ on local species, ecosystems, and human health. Therefore, the precautionary principle is recommended to promote better application standards and product traceability to reduce volumes entering the environment and to avoid use deviation. In addition, this work concluded that there is a need for reviewing the toxicological classification, establishing buffer zones for ATZ application, introducing specific management guidelines, and expanding local studies of toxicity, ecotoxicity, and human epidemiology for environmental and health risk assessments. This study could also serve as a preliminary risk evaluation for establishing a final regulatory action and for considering ATZ inclusion in Annex III of the Rotterdam Convention. Finally, the requirements to consider its inclusion in Annex A (Elimination) or B (Restriction) of the Stockholm Convention were evaluated and discussed, and information on the potential of long-range transport was the only criterion with no information to consider. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2023;19:684-697. © 2022 SETAC.

Physiological and morphological responses of green microalgae Chlorella vulgaris to silver nanoparticles.

The toxic effects of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on the physiology and morphology of the green microalga Chlorella vulgaris were studied. AgNPs were characterized by particle size distribution, ζ potential measurement, and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Chlorella vulgaris was exposed to 90-1440 µg/L of AgNPs range in Bold's Basal Medium for 96 h. The inhibition of algae growth rate and changes in the concentrations of chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, pheophytin, and carotenoids was determined at the beginning and end of the trial. Cell diameter and volume, carbohydrate, total lipids, and protein content were also determined. Our data strongly suggest that the toxic effects of the AgNPs resulted in concentration and time-dependent. AgNPs altered C. vulgaris growth kinetics and cell metabolism expressed in photosynthetic pigments and biochemical composition. Our study confirmed the cytotoxicity of AgNPs through the algal growth inhibition with an EC50 value of 110 µg/L. Also, changes of chlorophyll-a, chlorophyll-b, pheophytin, and carotenoids concentrations were observed associated with a color shift from green to pale brown of algae cultures exposed to AgNPs for 96 h. Furthermore, algae cell concentration, diameter, and volume, plus total lipid, protein, and carbohydrates contents in the presence of AgNPs, were significantly altered compared to untreated cells. In synthesis, this study highlighted AgNPs toxic effects on morphological and physiological traits of C. vulgaris and warns about possible impacts on energy flow and aquatic food web structure, and on the transfer efficiency of energy to higher trophic levels.

Water and sediment quality assessment in the Colastiné-Corralito stream system (Santa Fe, Argentina): impact of industry and agriculture on aquatic ecosystems.

The present study focuses on the evaluation of metal (chromium, copper, and lead), arsenic, and pesticide (atrazine and endosulfan) contamination in freshwater streams of one of the most important agricultural and industrial areas of central-eastern Argentina, which has not been reported earlier. The environmental fate of inorganic microcontaminants and pesticides was assessed. Samples were collected monthly for a year. Pesticide concentrations were measured in water; metal and arsenic concentrations were measured in water and sediments, and physicochemical variables were analyzed. In most cases, metals and arsenic in water exceeded the established guideline levels for the protection of aquatic biota: 98 and 56.25% of the samples showed higher levels of Cr and Pb, while 81.25 and 85% of the samples presented higher values for Cu and As, respectively. Cr, Pb, Cu, and As exceeded 181.5 times, 41.6 times, 57.5 times, and 12.9 times, respectively, the guideline level values. In sediment samples, permitted levels were also surpassed by 40% for Pb, 15% for As, 4% for Cu, and 2% for Cr. Geoaccumulation Index (Igeo) demonstrated that most of the sediment samples were highly polluted by Cr and Cu and very seriously polluted by Pb, which indicates progressive deterioration of the sediment quality. Atrazine never exceeded them, but 27% of the 48 water samples contained total endosulfan that surpassed the guidelines. The findings of this study suggest risk to the freshwater biota over prolong periods and possible risk to humans if such type of contaminated water is employed for recreation or human use. Improper disposal of industrial effluents and agricultural runoffs need to be controlled, and proper treatment should be done before disposal to avoid further deterioration of the aquifers of this area.

Accumulation and elimination of chromium by freshwater species exposed to spiked sediments.

The bioaccumulation and elimination capacity of chromium were examined in four freshwater species: the submersed aquatic plant Ceratophyllum demersum (Ceratophyllaceae), the oligochaete Limnodrilus udekemianus (Tubificidae), the crab Zilchiopsis collastinensis (Decapoda), and the fish Cnesterodon decemmaculatus (Poeciliidae). All of the species were exposed simultaneously to sediments spiked with Cr (K(2)Cr(2)O(7)) at different concentrations for 28 days, followed by 7 days without Cr to evaluate the concentration of residual Cr. We found that Cr accumulated in the tissues of all four species. The highest bioconcentration factor obtained for each species is as follows: C. demersum, 718.66 (+/-272.91); L. udekemianus, 172.55 (+/-80.8), Z. collastinensis, 67.72 (+/-35.4); C. decemmaculatus, 23.11 (+/-12.82), all at 28 days of exposure.