Targeting FGFR for cancer therapy.

The FGFR signaling pathway is integral to cellular activities, including proliferation, differentiation, and survival. Dysregulation of this pathway is implicated in numerous human cancers, positioning FGFR as a prominent therapeutic target. Here, we conduct a comprehensive review of the function, signaling pathways and abnormal alterations of FGFR, as well as its role in tumorigenesis and development. Additionally, we provide an in-depth analysis of pivotal phase 2 and 3 clinical trials evaluating the performance and safety of FGFR inhibitors in oncology, thereby shedding light on the current state of clinical research in this field. Then, we highlight four drugs that have been approved for marketing by the FDA, offering insights into their molecular mechanisms and clinical achievements. Our discussion encompasses the intricate landscape of FGFR-driven tumorigenesis, current techniques for pinpointing FGFR anomalies, and clinical experiences with FGFR inhibitor regimens. Furthermore, we discuss the inherent challenges of targeting the FGFR pathway, encompassing resistance mechanisms such as activation by gatekeeper mutations, alternative pathways, and potential adverse reactions. By synthesizing the current evidence, we underscore the potential of FGFR-centric therapies to enhance patient prognosis, while emphasizing the imperative need for continued research to surmount resistance and optimize treatment modalities.

Application and Study of ROCK Inhibitors in Pulmonary Fibrosis: Recent Developments and Future Perspectives.

Rho-associated coiled-coil-containing kinases (ROCKs), serine/threonine protein kinases, were initially identified as downstream targets of the small GTP-binding protein Rho. Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a lethal disease with limited therapeutic options and a particularly poor prognosis. Interestingly, ROCK activation has been demonstrated in PF patients and in animal PF models, making it a promising target for PF treatment. Many ROCK inhibitors have been discovered, and four of these have been approved for clinical use; however, no ROCK inhibitors are approved for the treatment of PF patients. In this article, we describe ROCK signaling pathways and the structure-activity relationship, potency, selectivity, binding modes, pharmacokinetics (PKs), biological functions, and recently reported inhibitors of ROCKs in the context of PF. We will also focus our attention on the challenges to be addressed when targeting ROCKs and discuss the strategy of ROCK inhibitor use in the treatment of PF.

An oral phenylacrylic acid derivative suppressed hepatic stellate cell activation and ameliorated liver fibrosis by blocking TGF-ß1 signalling.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Liver fibrosis is an excessive wound-healing response governed by activated hepatic stellate cells (HSCs). To date, there is no drug available for liver fibrosis. Although ferulic acid (FA) has multiple pharmacological functions, its anti-hepatic fibrosis activity is weak. Based on the activity modification of the FA structure, we synthesized a series of phenylacrylic derivatives and found a superior compound, FA11. In this study, we investigated its antifibrotic effect and mechanism. METHODS: Activated HSC and CCl4 -induced mouse liver fibrosis were established and followed by FA11 treatment. Cell viability was measured by CCK-8 assay. Apoptosis and cell cycle analysis were conducted by flow cytometry. Western blot and Real-time qPCR were used to examine the expression of fibrotic and M1/M2-type macrophages markers. Degree of liver fibrosis was shown by histological staining. RESULTS: In vitro, FA11 inhibited TGF-ß1-induced LX-2 proliferation and led to apoptosis and cycle arrest. Furthermore, elevation of fibrotic markers in TGF-ß1-induced LX-2 and primary activated HSC was reversed by FA11. In vivo, FA11 administration alleviated collagen deposition and blocked HSC activation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Additionally, FA11 reduced macrophage infiltration in fibrotic liver and prevented macrophage polarization to a profibrotic phenotype. Meanwhile, the systemic toxicity of CCl4 was also ameliorated by FA11. Mechanistically, FA11 reversed the phosphorylation of canonical and noncanonical TGF-ß1 signalling, as well as FGFR1 signalling. CONCLUSIONS: We reported an oral phenylacrylic acid derivative, FA11, which showed excellent antifibrotic activity and was expected to be an anti-hepatic fibrosis candidate.

Discovery of the novel Benzo[b]thiophene 1,1-dioxide derivatives as a potent STAT3 inhibitor against idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive lung disease of unknown aetiology with limited treatment options. Currently, only two drugs, nintedanib and pirfenidone, are approved for the clinical treatment of IPF, but their efficacies are not satisfactory. Previous studies have shown that STAT3 might be a promising therapeutic target for IPF. Here, we designed several series of compounds and finally synthesized a total of 48 novel compounds as potential STAT3 inhibitors. Notably, compound 10K was the most promising compound with excellent inhibitory activity against STAT3 phosphorylation. Subsequently, the anti-pulmonary fibrosis effect of 10K was further investigated by TGF-ß1-stimulated in vitro cell assay and bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis animal models. Specifically, compound 10K inhibited the TGF-ß1 induced fibrotic response and blocked the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of A549 cells, and its inhibitory effect was significantly better than that of Stattic. In addition, after oral administration of 10K, the symptoms of IPF in the lung tissue in the prevention and treatment mouse models were significantly reversed, and the efficacy was comparable to that of nintedanib. Moreover, 10K improved BLM-induced imbalance of immune microenvironment in lung tissue. Taken together, these results suggest that 10K could be a potential STAT3 inhibitor for the treatment of IPF.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel diarylacylhydrazones derivatives for the efficient treatment of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fatal lung disease characterized with high mortality, unknown etiology, and lack of effective treatment. Many evidences validate that inhibiting the activation of STAT3 is an attractive therapeutic strategy for IPF. Herein, based on our previous findings that nifuroxazide (NIF) could effectively attenuate pulmonary fibrosis by inhibiting STAT3 activation, a series of diarylacylhydrazones derivatives have been designed and synthesized. Among them, compounds 44 and 52 could inhibit TGF-ß1-induced abnormal activation of NIH-3T3 and A549 cells, as well as migration and EMT of A549 cells. In a bleomycin-induced mouse pulmonary fibrosis model, the oral administration of 44 and 52 (bioavailability F = 31.75% and 42.08%) improved mouse lung function and slowed the progression of IPF. Moreover, 52 could reverse the pulmonary fibrosis in treatment model. Collectively, this work shows 44 and 52 could be a potential lead compound for the treatment of IPF, and it is worthy of further study.

Niclosamide-loaded nanoparticles (Ncl-NPs) reverse pulmonary fibrosis in vivo and in vitro.

INTRODUCTION: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), a life-threatening interstitial lung disease, is characterized by excessive activation and proliferation of fibroblasts and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of alveolar epithelial cells (AEC) accompanied by a large amount of extracellular matrix aggregation. There are no therapies to reverse pulmonary fibrosis, and nintedanib and pirfenidone could only slow down the decline of lung function of IPF patients and delay their survival time. Niclosamide (Ncl) is an antihelminthic drug approved by FDA, which has been reported to have pleiotropic pharmacological activities in recent years, but it's almost complete insolubility in water limits its clinical application. OBJECTIVES: To improve the water solubility of Ncl, explore its ability to reverse BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis and its specific mechanism of action. METHODS: The Niclosamide-loaded nanoparticles (Ncl-NPs) were formed by emulsification solvent evaporation method. A mouse model induced by bleomycin (BLM) was established to evaluate its effects and mechanisms of inhibiting and reversing fibrosis in vivo. The cell models treated by transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1) were used to examine the mechanism of Ncl-NPs inhibiting fibrosis in vitro. Flow cytometry, IHC, IL-4-induced macrophage model and co-culture system were used to assess the effect of Ncl-NPs on M2 polarization of macrophages. RESULTS: The Ncl-NPs improved the poor water solubility of Ncl. The lower dose of Ncl-NPs (2.5 mg/kg) showed the same effect of reversing established pulmonary fibrosis as free Ncl (5 mg/kg). Mechanistic studies revealed that Ncl-NPs blocked TGF-ß/Smad and signaling transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3) signaling pathways and inhibited the M2 polarization of macrophages. Additionally, H&E staining of the tissues initially showed the safety of Ncl-NPs. CONCLUSION: These results indicate Ncl-NPs may serve as a new idea for the treatment of pulmonary fibrosis.

Discovery and evaluation of phenacrylanilide derivatives as novel potential anti-liver fibrosis agents.

Liver fibrosis is characterized by the excessive deposition of extracellular matrix components and results from chronic liver injury. At present, there is no approved drug for the treatment of liver fibrosis by the Food and Drug Administration. Here, we have reported a series of novel compounds with phenacrylanilide scaffolds that potently inhibit the transfer growth factor ß1 (TGF-ß1)-induced activation of LX-2, a hepatic stellate cell (HSC) line. Among them, compound 42 suppressed TGF-ß1-induced upregulation of fibrotic markers (α-SMA and fibronectin) and showed excellent safety in vitro. Furthermore, in a carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) -induced liver fibrosis model, 42 at a dose of 30 mg/kg/day through oral administration for 3 weeks effectively improved liver function, restored damaged liver structures, and reduced collagen deposition, with a greater effect than Tranilast. In addition, epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) is inhibited by compound 42 in the process of fibrosis. Meanwhile, the imbalanced immune microenvironment could also be effectively reversed. More interestingly, compound 42 prolongs the survival of CCl4 mice and ameliorates CCl4-induced injury to spleen, kidney, lung and heart. Altogether, these results suggest that 42 could be a potential drug candidate for the treatment of liver fibrosis.

Blueberry Juice Attenuates Pulmonary Fibrosis via Blocking the TGF-ß1/Smad Signaling Pathway.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a progressive, fatal, and chronic lung disease, lacking a validated and effective therapy. Blueberry has demonstrated multiple pharmacological activities including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer. Therefore, the objective of this study was to investigate whether blueberry juice (BBJ) could ameliorate IPF. Experiments in vitro revealed that BBJ could significantly reduce the expressions of TGF-ß1 modulated fibrotic protein, which were involved in the cascade of fibrosis in NIH/3T3 cells and human pulmonary fibroblasts. In addition, for rat primary lung fibroblasts (RPLFs), BBJ promoted the cell apoptosis along with reducing the expressions of α-SMA, vimentin, and collagen I, while increasing the E-cadherin level. Furthermore, BBJ could reverse epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotypic changes and inhibit cell migration, along with inducing the upregulation of E-cadherin in A549 cells. Compared with the vehicle group, BBJ treatment alleviated fibrotic pathological changes and collagen deposition in both bleomycin-induced prevention and treatment pulmonary fibrosis models. In fibrotic lung tissues, BBJ remarkably suppressed the expressions of collagen I, α-SMA, and vimentin and improved E-cadherin, which may be related to its inhibition of the TGF-ß1/Smad pathway and anti-inflammation efficacy. Taken together, these findings comprehensively proved that BBJ could effectively prevent and attenuate idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis via suppressing EMT and the TGF-ß1/Smad signaling pathway.

Nifuroxazide ameliorates pulmonary fibrosis by blocking myofibroblast genesis: a drug repurposing study.

BACKGROUND: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a serious interstitial lung disease with a complex pathogenesis and high mortality. The development of new drugs is time-consuming and laborious; therefore, research on the new use of old drugs can save time and clinical costs and even avoid serious side effects. Nifuroxazide (NIF) was originally used to treat diarrhoea, but more recently, it has been found to have additional pharmacological effects, such as anti-tumour effects and inhibition of inflammatory diseases related to diabetic nephropathy. However, there are no reports regarding its role in pulmonary fibrosis. METHODS: The therapeutic effect of NIF on pulmonary fibrosis in vivo was measured by ELISA, hydroxyproline content, H&E and Masson staining, immunohistochemistry (IHC) and western blot. Immune cell content in lung tissue was also analysed by flow cytometry. NIF cytotoxicity was evaluated in NIH/3T3 cells, human pulmonary fibroblasts (HPFs), A549 cells and rat primary lung fibroblasts (RPLFs) using the MTT assay. Finally, an in vitro cell model created by transforming growth factor-ß1 (TGF-ß1) stimulation was assessed using different experiments (immunofluorescence, western blot and wound migration assay) to evaluate the effects of NIF on the activation of NIH/3T3 and HPF cells and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and migration of A549 cells. RESULTS: In vivo, intraperitoneal injection of NIF relieved and reversed pulmonary fibrosis caused by bleomycin (BLM) bronchial instillation. In addition, NIF inhibited the expression of a variety of cellular inflammatory factors and immune cells. Furthermore, NIF suppressed the activation of fibroblasts and EMT of epithelial cells induced by TGF-ß1. Most importantly, we used an analytical docking experiment and thermal shift assay to further verify that NIF functions in conjunction with signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3). Moreover, NIF inhibited the TGF-ß/Smad pathway in vitro and decreased the expression of phosphorylated Stat3 in vitro and in vivo. CONCLUSION: Taken together, we conclude that NIF inhibits and reverses pulmonary fibrosis, and these results support NIF as a viable therapeutic option for IPF treatment.

Liver Fibrosis: Therapeutic Targets and Advances in Drug Therapy.

Liver fibrosis is an abnormal wound repair response caused by a variety of chronic liver injuries, which is characterized by over-deposition of diffuse extracellular matrix (ECM) and anomalous hyperplasia of connective tissue, and it may further develop into liver cirrhosis, liver failure or liver cancer. To date, chronic liver diseases accompanied with liver fibrosis have caused significant morbidity and mortality in the world with increasing tendency. Although early liver fibrosis has been reported to be reversible, the detailed mechanism of reversing liver fibrosis is still unclear and there is lack of an effective treatment for liver fibrosis. Thus, it is still a top priority for the research and development of anti-fibrosis drugs. In recent years, many strategies have emerged as crucial means to inhibit the occurrence and development of liver fibrosis including anti-inflammation and liver protection, inhibition of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) activation and proliferation, reduction of ECM overproduction and acceleration of ECM degradation. Moreover, gene therapy has been proved to be a promising anti-fibrosis method. Here, we provide an overview of the relevant targets and drugs under development. We aim to classify and summarize their potential roles in treatment of liver fibrosis, and discuss the challenges and development of anti-fibrosis drugs.

Epigenetic regulation in fibrosis progress.

Fibrosis, a common process of chronic inflammatory diseases, is defined as a repair response disorder when organs undergo continuous damage, ultimately leading to scar formation and functional failure. Around the world, fibrotic diseases cause high mortality, unfortunately, with limited treatment means in clinical practice. With the development and application of deep sequencing technology, comprehensively exploring the epigenetic mechanism in fibrosis has been allowed. Extensive remodeling of epigenetics controlling various cells phenotype and molecular mechanisms involved in fibrogenesis was subsequently verified. In this review, we summarize the regulatory mechanisms of DNA methylation, histone modification, noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) and N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification in organ fibrosis, focusing on heart, liver, lung and kidney. Additionally, we emphasize the diversity of epigenetics in the cellular and molecular mechanisms related to fibrosis. Finally, the potential and prospect of targeted therapy for fibrosis based on epigenetic is discussed.

A novel multikinase inhibitor SKLB-YTH-60 ameliorates inflammation and fibrosis in bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis mouse models.

OBJECTIVES: Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is marked by the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix, which participates in a variety of chronic diseases or injuries and seriously threatens human health. Due to the side effects of clinical drugs, there is still a need to develop novel and less toxic drugs to treat pulmonary fibrosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: SKLB-YTH-60 was developed through computer-aided drug design, de novo synthesis and high-throughput screening. We employed the bleomycin (BLM)-induced lung fibrosis animal models and used TGF-ß1 to induce the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of A549 cells in vitro. Meanwhile, the protein expression of collagen I and the α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), E-cadherin, p-FGFR1, p-PLCγ, p-Smad2/3 and p-Erk1/2 was detected by western blot. RESULTS: YTH-60 has obvious anti-proliferative activity on fibroblasts and A549 cells. Moreover, YTH-60 could impair the EMT of A549 cells and suppressed fibrosis by inhibiting FGFR and TGF-ß/Smad-dependent pathways. Intraperitoneal administration of preventive YTH-60 could significantly reduce the degree of fibrosis in mice and regulate the imbalance of the immune microenvironment. In addition, we observed that therapeutic YTH-60 treatment attenuated fibrotic changes in mice during the period of fibrosis. Importantly, YTH-60 has shown an acceptable oral bioavailability (F = 17.86%) and appropriate eliminated half-life time (T1/2  = 8.03 hours). CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these preclinical evaluations suggested that YTH-60 could be a promising drug candidate for treating IPF.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of indazole derivatives as anti-cancer agents.

Several FDA approved small molecule anti-cancer drugs contain indazole scaffolds. Here, we report the design, synthesis and biological evaluation of a series of indazole derivatives. In vitro antiproliferative activity screening showed that compound 2f had potent growth inhibitory activity against several cancer cell lines (IC50 = 0.23-1.15 µM). Treatment of the breast cancer cell line 4T1 with 2f inhibited cell proliferation and colony formation. 2f dose-dependently promoted the apoptosis of 4T1 cells, which was connected with the upregulation of cleaved caspase-3 and Bax, and downregulation of Bcl-2. 2f also decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential and increased the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in 4T1 cells. Additionally, treatment with 2f disrupted 4T1 cells migration and invasion, and the reduction of matrix metalloproteinase metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) and increase of tissue inhibitor matrix metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP2) were also observed. Moreover, 2f could suppress the growth of the 4T1 tumor model without obvious side effects in vivo. Taken together, these results identified 2f as a potential small molecule anti-cancer agent.

Galangin ameliorated pulmonary fibrosis in vivo and in vitro by regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

Pulmonary fibrosis (PF) is a disease that is characterized by abnormal epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and persistent inflammatory injury, with high mortality and poor prognosis, but the current therapies are accompanied by certain adverse side effects. In this study, we investigated the role of galangin (GA), an anti-inflammatory and anti-tumoral phytochemical extracted from galangal, in preventing and curing bleomycin (BLM)-induced pulmonary fibrosis and the underlying mechanism. Histopathological staining confirmed that GA dramatically moderated bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. Compared with the vehicle treatment, GA treatment inhibited the expression of vimentin and increased the expression of E-cadherin. The expression of α-Smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), which is a myofibroblast marker, was also suppressed. In addition, GA diminished the increase in the numbers of CD4+CD69+ and CD8+CD69+ T cells and dendritic cells induced by bleomycin, and reduced the residence of inflammatory cells in the lung tissues. Notably, GA inhibited the TGF-ß1-induced EMT and fibroblast differentiation in vitro, which further confirmed the potential protective effect of GA on pulmonary fibrosis. Taken together, our results suggest that GA exerts a beneficial effect on bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis by attenuating EMT and inflammatory damage and may have prevent potential of pulmonary fibrosis.

Cryptotanshinone reverses the epithelial-mesenchymal transformation process and attenuates bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis.

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a fibrotic interstitial pneumonia that causes pulmonary tissue damage and functional impairment. To investigate the effects of cryptotanshinone on pulmonary fibrosis, the expression of NIH/3T3, HPF, and rat primary pulmonary fibroblasts was measured and found to be inhibited by CPT in a time- and concentration-dependent manner, and the upregulation of α-SMA expression in NIH/3T3 and HPF cells, which had been stimulated by TGFß-1, was decreased after CPT administration. We observed that CPT could reverse the increase in α-SMA expression and vimentin and the decrease in E-cad expression in A549 cells, which had been induced by 5 ng/mL TGFß-1, indicating that CPT has inhibitory effects in the EMT process. A BLM-induced pulmonary fibrosis model was established in C57BL/6 mice. The lung coefficient and hydroxyproline content increased significantly in the BLM-induced group and were decreased in the CPT-treated group. The expression levels of collagen-I and α-SMA and the phosphorylation level of Stat3 were significantly increased, and CPT treatment decreased these levels. Furthermore, the results from the flow cytometry analysis indicated that, in lung tissues, the frequencies of MDSCs, macrophages, DCs and T cells were considerably increased in the BLM-induced group, while CPT treatment reduced these immunocyte populations.

Inhibition of Stat3 Signaling Pathway by Natural Product Pectolinarigenin Attenuates Breast Cancer Metastasis.

Background: Breast cancer is the most common female cancer with considerable metastatic potential, which urges the need for developing novel potential drug candidate to inhibit tumor metastasis. Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (Stat3) have critical roles in cancer growth and metastasis and have been confirmed as a promising anticancer target. Here, we report our finding with pectolinarigenin, a flavonoid compound isolated from the aerial parts of Cirsium chanroenicum. Methods: The role of Pec. in cell proliferation, cell apoptosis, and cell migration and invasion in three breast cancer cells (4T1, MDA-MB-231, MCF-7) was investigated. Cell proliferation was determined by MTT assay, cell apoptosis was determined by flow cytometry, and protein expression was detected by western blotting. Tumor xenograft mice model and breast tumor metastasis model in vivo were built to further assess the effects of Pec. on 4T1 cells. Results: Intraperitoneal administrations of pectolinarigenin significantly inhibited breast cancer metastasis to lungs without affecting the tumor growth of incubated 4T1 breast cancer cells. Pectolinarigenin could also recruit CD8+ T cells to mediate tumor immune response. Furthermore, pectolinarigenin markedly impaired cancer cell migration and invasion by down-regulating phosphorylated-Stat3, and expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9, while up-regulating the expression of TIMP2. We also found that pectolinarigenin inhibited breast cancer cell proliferation and induced apoptosis via mitochondrial-related apoptosis pathway, reduced mitochondrial membrane potential and the expression of Bcl-2, increased expression of Bax, and cleaved caspase-3 as well as disturbed the ROS generation. Conclusions: Pectolinarigenin might potentially be a candidate for metastasis of breast cancer by mediating Stat3 pathway.

Natural product pectolinarigenin exhibits potent anti-metastatic activity in colorectal carcinoma cells in vitro and in vivo.

Colorectal carcinoma (CRC) is one of the most common cancers with high metastatic potential, explaining why identifying new drug candidates that inhibit tumour metastasis is an urgent need. The aim of this study was to evaluate the biological activities of pectolinarigenin (PEC, a natural flavonoid present in Cirsium chanroenicum) in CRC in vitro and in vivo and to determine its underlying mechanism of action. Here, we observed that treatment with PEC could inhibit cell viability and induce apoptosis in cancer cells in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. The occurrence of apoptosis was associated with activation of caspase-3 and Bax and decreased expression of Bcl-2. In addition, PEC markedly impaired CRC cell migration and invasion by downregulating the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-9) and phosphorylated-Stat3Tyr705. Moreover, our studies showed that PEC inhibited abdominal metastasis models of murine colorectal cancer. In addition, histological and immunohistochemical analyses revealed a decrease in Ki67-positive cells, MMP9-positive cells and p-Stat3Tyr705 cells upon treatment with PEC compared to control samples. Furthermore, PEC reduced the number of myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) in the blood and tumours, which was accompanied by the increased infiltration of CD8+T cells in the blood. Taken together, our findings suggested that PEC could be used as a natural drug to inhibit CRC metastasis.