ABSTRACT
Primary adrenal insufficiency (PAI), or Addison's disease, is a rare, potentially deadly, but treatable disease. Most cases of PAI are caused by autoimmune destruction of the adrenal cortex. Consequently, patients with PAI are at higher risk of developing other autoimmune diseases. The diagnosis of PAI is often delayed by many months, and most patients present with symptoms of acute adrenal insufficiency. Because PAI is rare, even medical specialists in this therapeutic area rarely manage more than a few patients. Currently, the procedures for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up of this rare disease vary greatly within Europe. The common autoimmune form of PAI is characterized by the presence of 21-hydroxylase autoantibodies; other causes should be sought if no autoantibodies are detected. Acute adrenal crisis is a life-threatening condition that requires immediate treatment. Standard replacement therapy consists of multiple daily doses of hydrocortisone or cortisone acetate combined with fludrocortisone. Annual follow-up by an endocrinologist is recommended with the focus on optimization of replacement therapy and detection of new autoimmune diseases. Patient education to enable self-adjustment of dosages of replacement therapy and crisis prevention is particularly important in this disease. The authors of this document have collaborated within an EU project (Euadrenal) to study the pathogenesis, describe the natural course and improve the treatment for Addison's disease. Based on a synthesis of this research, the available literature, and the views and experiences of the consortium's investigators and key experts, we now attempt to provide a European Expert Consensus Statement for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up.
Subject(s)
Addison Disease/diagnosis , Addison Disease/drug therapy , Adrenal Cortex/immunology , Autoimmunity , Cortisone/analogs & derivatives , Hydrocortisone/administration & dosage , Prednisolone/administration & dosage , Acute Disease , Addison Disease/complications , Addison Disease/immunology , Addison Disease/prevention & control , Adrenal Insufficiency/diagnosis , Adrenal Insufficiency/drug therapy , Algorithms , Autoantibodies/blood , Chronic Disease , Consensus , Cortisone/administration & dosage , Diagnosis, Differential , Drug Administration Schedule , Drug Interactions , Emergency Treatment/methods , Europe , Female , Humans , Male , Pregnancy , Pregnancy Complications/diagnosis , Pregnancy Complications/drug therapy , Steroid 21-Hydroxylase/immunologyABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION: Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are used to treat musculoskeletal disorders, inflammation and to control pain. Virtually all NSAIDs are capable of producing liver injury ranging from mild reversible elevation of liver enzymes to severe hepatic necrosis. METHODS: Mice were dosed intraperitoneally with mefenamic acid either one day at 100mg/kg and 200mg/kg, or 14 days dosing at 50mg/kg/day and 100mg/kg/day. Plasma was taken for alanine aminotransferase activity. Mice were sacrificed at the end of the study. Livers were removed and weighed. Liver samples were taken for histology. results: One-day doses of mefenamic acid revealed dose-dependent hepatocyte degeneration in the liver parenchyma. There were no significant changes in plasma alanine aminotransferase activity. Interestingly, 14-day daily doses induced hepatocellular necrosis, massive degeneration and inflammation. This was accompanied by a significant increase in plasma alanine aminotransferase activity and significant increase in the liver weight in the 100mg/kg/day mefenamic acid-dosed mice. CONCLUSION: Results from this study suggest that mefenamic acid is capable of producing hepatotoxicity and care should be taken when prescribing or using this drug.
