Long-term behavioral and neuronal cross-sensitization to amphetamine induced by repeated brief social defeat stress: Fos in the ventral tegmental area and amygdala.

Repeated exposure to stress induces cross-sensitization to psychostimulants. The present study assessed functional neural activation during social defeat stress-induced sensitization to a subsequent amphetamine challenge. Social defeat stress was induced in intruder rats during short confrontations with an aggressive resident rat once every third day during the course of 10 days. Rats received d-amphetamine injections (1 mg/kg, i.p.) 17 or 70 days after the first social defeat stress exposure. Amphetamine administration induced a significantly higher frequency of locomotor activity in stressed animals than in handled control rats, which was still evident 2 months after the last social stress exposure. Immunohistochemistry for Fos-like proteins was used to detect activated neural profiles in the striatum, nucleus accumbens (NAc), prefrontal cortex, amygdala, and ventral tegmental area (VTA). Repeated social defeat stress significantly increased Fos-like immunoreactive (Fos-LI) labeling 17 days after the start of stress exposure in the prelimbic and infralimbic cortical regions, NAc shell and core, medial, central and basolateral amygdala, and VTA, which probably represented the expression of chronic Fos-related antigens. Amphetamine augmented stress-induced Fos-LI labeling 17 days after the first stress episode in the dorsal striatum, NAc core, and medial amygdala, reflecting a cross-sensitization of Fos response. Amphetamine challenge 70 days after social stress exposures revealed sensitized Fos-LI labeling in the VTA and the amygdala. These data suggest that episodes of repeated social stress induce a long-lasting neural change that leads to an augmented functional activation in the VTA and amygdala, which might represent a neurobiological substrate for long-lasting cross-sensitization of repeated social defeat stress with psychostimulant drugs.

Dynamic assessment and instructional strategies for learners who struggle to learn a foreign language.

In this paper the authors discuss how the concept of dynamic (cognitive) assessment and instruction might relate to the assessment and instruction of at-risk foreign/second language learners. They describe its relevance to a diagnostic/prescriptive approach to instruction for teaching a foreign language to students with identified dyslexia and other at-risk students. They explain how to assess learners' knowledge of the native/foreign/second language through questions and guided discovery. Examples in German and English illustrate its application to foreign/second language instruction.

Reflections on foreign language study for students with language learning problems: research, issues and challenges.

The study of foreign language (FL) learning for individuals who have found learning to read and write in their first language extremely problematic has been an under-researched area throughout the world. Since the 1980s, Leonore Ganschow and Richard Sparks have conducted pioneering research into the nature of difficulties, why they are encountered and how they can be minimized. In this paper the authors trace the development of their research on foreign language difficulties for students with language learning problems. They provide a summary of their findings and suggest new questions and directions for the field.

A 10-year follow-up survey of programs and services for students with learning disabilities in graduate and professional schools.

This 10-year follow-up study compares programs and services for students with learning disabilities (LD) in graduate and professional schools between 1985 and 1995. In 1995, surveys were sent to the same institutions (n = 682) as in the earlier survey, with a response rate of 30.6%. Significant changes over the 10 years include a higher level of awareness about LD and evidence of greater compliance with Section 504, a greater specificity of assessments required for the identification of students who receive services, improvements in the types and extent of services available, and increased program visibility. Despite these positive changes, 24% of the respondents indicated that they did not have a coordinator for LD at their institution, and 33% did not have a written plan for services. Eighteen institutions with programs or services for students with LD gave permission to publish their names. Implications and recommendations are discussed.

Comparison of students classified as LD who petitioned for or fulfilled the college foreign language requirement.

In this study, we compared the cognitive, academic achievement, and demographic profiles of 46 students from one university who had been classified as learning disabled (LD) and had received permission to substitute courses for the university's foreign language (FL) requirement (petition group) with the profiles of 21 students from the same university who had been classified as LD and had fulfilled the university's FL requirement by passing FL courses (nonpetition group). Results showed no significant differences between the two groups on measures of reading, mathematics, written language, American College Testing score, and graduating grade point average when IQ was used as a covariate. More petition than nonpetition students had at least a 1.0 SD discrepancy between IQ and achievement and had been referred only for FL learning problems. More nonpetition than petition students had taken an FL in college and received accommodations in the FL. The two groups together appeared to constitute a heterogeneous group of learners, with more than half failing to meet a minimum discrepancy criterion for classification as LD. The discussion addresses the classification system for LD, the process for determining the presence of FL learning problems and how to address them, and directions for further research.

Students classified as LD and the college foreign language requirement: a quantitative analysis.

This study was conducted to determine whether students classified as learning disabled (LD) who were permitted to substitute courses for the college foreign language (FL) requirement at one university would display significant cognitive and academic achievement differences when grouped by level of discrepancy between IQ and achievement, by discrepancy between achievement according to different measures, and by level of performance on phonological-orthographic processing measures, on the Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT), and in FL courses. Results showed that there were no differences among students with different levels of discrepancy (i.e., < 1.0 SD, 1.0-1.49 SD, and > 1.50 SD) on MLAT and American College Testing (ACT) scores, graduating grade point average (GPA) or college FL GPA. Results also showed that among students who scored below versus at or above the 25th percentile on phonological-orthographic processing measures, there were no differences on measures of IQ, ACT, MLAT, and GPA, as well as most measures of academic achievement. Implications for the use of the LD label to grant FL course substitutions or waivers, use of the MLAT in the diagnostic and course substitution/waiver process, and the validity and reliability of traditional criteria for the classification as LD are discussed.

Foreign language learning difficulties: an historical perspective.

For 10 years, the authors of this article have examined cognitive, affective, and linguistic influences on foreign language learning. They have proposed the Linguistic Coding Differences Hypothesis (LCDH) as a model for understanding foreign language learning problems. The authors review their empirical support for the LCDH and explain the diagnostic, pedagogical, and policy implications of their research.

Language anxiety and proficiency in a foreign language.

Study examined the extent to which there would be differences in oral and written proficiency in a foreign language among groups of low-, average-, and high-anxious high school students. Participants were 60 girls attending a single-sex, college-preparatory high school and completing the second year of a foreign language course. Analysis showed over-all differences on measures of proficiency in the foreign language among the three groups. The results support the hypothesis that anxiety about foreign language learning is likely to represent students' differences in language learning.

Foreign language proficiency of at-risk and not-at-risk learners over 2 years of foreign language instruction: a follow-up study.

In this follow-up study, students at risk for problems with learning a foreign language who were taught using a multisensory, structured language approach to Spanish made significant gains over 2 years on three native language phonological/orthographic measures and a foreign language aptitude test. Despite gains, at-risk students did not "catch up" with not-at-risk students on these measures. Qualitative between-group differences were noted on foreign language proficiency measures.

Role of intelligence tests in speech/language referrals.

This study examined the relation of the WISC-R Verbal IQ with measures of oral and written language among 190 students referred to a private educational clinic over a 5-yr. period. Correlations of Verbal IQ with scores on measures of oral language, written language, receptive language, reading comprehension, and basic reading skills were calculated for the total sample and by Grades 1-3, 4-7, and 8-11. Standard regression coefficients were used to estimate the proportion of variance explained by these five measures. Significant correlations were found for Verbal IQ with the measures, ranging from .36 (Basic Reading Skills) to .69 (Receptive Vocabulary). Multiple regression indicated that 59% of the variance was explained by the five measures and that three--Oral Language, Receptive Vocabulary, and Reading Comprehension--contributed significantly to Verbal IQ. Correlations across grades showed inconsistent differences by grade for Verbal IQ with language variables. Implications for speech-language referral practices are discussed.

Effects of direct instruction in Spanish phonology on the native-language skills and foreign-language aptitude of at-risk foreign-language learners.

This study examined the effect of an academic year of direct instruction in the phonology/orthography of Spanish on the native-language skills and foreign-language aptitude of high school women identified as at risk (n = 14) and not at risk (n = 19) for experiencing problems with learning a foreign language. At-risk students received a specialized teaching approach; not-at-risk students received traditional foreign-language instruction. Pre- and posttest results showed that both groups improved significantly on a foreign-language aptitude test, and the at-risk group made significant gains on native-language phonology/orthography measures. Pretest comparisons showed significant between-group differences on several phonological/orthographic measures and the foreign-language aptitude test. Posttest comparisons showed that the not-at-risk subjects still scored significantly higher than at-risk subjects on the foreign-language aptitude measure; no differences were noted on two native-language phonological/orthographic measures. Pre- and posttest comparisons between groups showed that the at-risk group made significantly greater gains than the not-at-risk group on phonological/orthographic measures. Implications for instruction are presented.

Dyslexia and musical notation.

The authors examine the difficulties experienced by dyslexic musicians in the formalized study of music, in particular, musical notation. They describe case studies from the literature and from personal interviews they conducted with musicians about their educational histories, musical weaknesses and strengths, and successful compensatory strategies. The authors make instructional suggestions for educators and musicians with dyslexia on how to use multisensory approaches to teach musical notation.

The effects of multisensory structured language instruction on native language and foreign language aptitude skills of at-risk high school foreign language learners: A replication and follow-up study.

According to research findings, most students who experience foreign language learning problems are thought to have overt or subtle native language learning difficulties, primarily with phonological processing. A recent study by the authors showed that when a multisensory structured language approach to teaching Spanish was used with a group of at-risk high school students, the group's pre- and posttest scores on native language phonological processing, verbal memory and vocabulary, and foreign language aptitude measures significantly improved. In this replication and follow-up study, the authors compared pre- and posttest scores of a second group of students (Cohort 2) who received MSL instruction in Spanish on native language and foreign language aptitude measures. They also followed students from the first study (Cohort 1) over a second year of foreign language instruction. Findings showed that the second cohort made significant gains on three native language phonological measures and a test of foreign language aptitude. Follow-up testing on the first cohort showed that the group maintained its initial gains on all native language and foreign language aptitude measures. Implications for the authors' Linguistic Coding Deficit Hypothesis are discussed and linked with current reading research, in particular the concepts of the assumption of specificity and modularity.

The effects of multisensory structured language instruction on native language and foreign language aptitude skills of at-risk high school foreign language learners.

Research findings suggest that most students who have foreign language learning problems have language-based difficulties and, in particular, phonological processing problems. Authors of the present study examined pre- and posttest scores on native language and foreign language aptitude tests of three groups of at-risk high school students enrolled in special, self-contained sections of first-year Spanish. Two groups were instructed using a multisensory structured language (MSL) approach. One of the groups was taught in both English and Spanish (MSL/ES), the other only in Spanish (MSL/S). The third group (NO-MSL) was instructed using more traditional second language teaching methodologies. Significant gains were made by the MSL-ES group on measures of native language phonology, vocabulary, and verbal memory and on a test of foreign language aptitude; the MSL/S group made significant gains on the test of foreign language aptitude. No significant gains on the native language or foreign language aptitude measures were made by the NO-MSL group. Implications for foreign language classroom instruction of at-risk students are discussed.

Identifying native language difficulties among foreign language learners in college: a "foreign" language learning disability?

The present study compared successful and unsuccessful college foreign language learners on measures of intelligence, foreign language aptitude, native oral and written language, and math. Unsuccessful students had received petitions to waive the foreign language requirement. No significant differences between groups were found on intelligence and reading comprehension. Significant differences were found on the Modern Language Aptitude Test, on tests of written and oral language in the syntactic and phonological domains, and on math calculation. Authors suggest that students with foreign language learning difficulties may have underlying native language problems manifested especially in the areas of syntax and phonology. Suggestions for diagnosing a foreign language disability are made.

Use of an orton-gillingham approach to teach a foreign language to dyslexic/learning-disabled students: Explicit teaching of phonology in a second language.

Recent research findings suggest that students who have difficulty learning a second language have weaknesses in oral and written native-language skills which affect their performance in the foreign-language classroom. These weaknesses involve understanding the phonological, syntactic, and semantic codes of language. Evidence suggests that dyslexic/learning-disabled and other "at risk" students who struggle in the second language classroom exhibit particular difficulty with the phonological and syntactic codes of the language. The Orton-Gillingham method, a multisensory, structured language approach which adheres to the direct and explicit teaching of phonology, is presented as an alternative to the "natural" communication approaches recently developed by foreign-language educators to teach a second language. A method for adapting this approach for teaching Spanish is described.

Linguistic coding deficits in foreign language learners.

As increasing numbers of colleges and universities require a foreign language for graduation in at least one of their degree programs, reports of students with difficulties in learning a second language are multiplying. Until recently, little research has been conducted to identify the nature of this problem. Recent attempts by the authors have focused upon subtle but ongoing language difficulties in these individuals as the source of their struggle to learn a foreign language. The present paper attempts to expand upon this concept by outlining a theoretical framework based upon a linguistic coding model that hypothesizes deficits in the processing of phonological, syntactic, and/or semantic information. Traditional psychoeducational assessment batteries of standardized intelligence and achievement tests generally are not sensitive to these linguistic coding deficits unless closely analyzed or, more often, used in conjunction with a more comprehensive language assessment battery. Students who have been waived from a foreign language requirement and their proposed type(s) of linguistic coding deficits are profiled. Tentative conclusions about the nature of these foreign language learning deficits are presented along with specific suggestions for tests to be used in psychoeducational evaluations.

Effects of mode of presentation on comprehension of below average, average and above average readers.

300 subjects in Grades 4, 5, and 6 were randomly blocked into three conditions (reading only, listening only, or reading and listening) according to reading level (above average, average, and below average). The subjects were presented a 1500-word social studies passage and required to answer 25 multiple-choice questions concerning that passage. A 3 (grade) by 3 (reading level) by 3 (exposure condition) analysis of variance showed better performance by above average readers, poorest by those below average. Reading and listening and reading only gave higher scores.

Analysis of written language of a language learning disabled (dyslexic) college student and instructional implications.

This paper examines spontaneous writing of a college student with a history of language learning problems. Writing samples, collected from tests and papers in college courses, were analyzed for syntactic complexity, spelling, grammatical errors, semantic errors, and organization. Metacognitive factors were analyzed by examining student's responses to questions about his perceptions about writing. Results showed: (a) the dyslexic student produced syntactically complex structures comparable to nondyslexic writers; (b) the student averaged 9% spelling errors per essay and 17 grammatical errors per essay; (c) primary semantic errors were inappropriate word choices, incorrect determiners, and overuse of "so" as a transition; (d) major problem with organization involved difficulties with expanding an idea beyond "saying the same thing in a different way;" (e) metacognitive strategies included difficulties with separating self from writing and recognizing ambiguity in writing. The paper then describes six instructional strategies to assist in remediation of the student's writing problems.