Educational Psychology: The Key to Prevention and Child-Adolescent Mental Health.

BACKGROUND: Educational psychology ranks second, after clinical psychology, in terms of professional activity profiles but in recent decades, the role of the educational psychologist has blurred. METHOD: The specialized literature was reviewed, and previous works by the author on the subject were updated. RESULTS: This article emphasizes the relevance of educational psychology for the prevention and promotion of child and adolescent mental health. For this purpose, we must delimit the functions of the psychologist in educational contexts, differentiating it from other professional roles. To this end: (1) the main functions of the educational psychologist with students, their families, and teachers are proposed; (2) the postgraduate training necessary to perform these functions is described; and (3) the relevant role that educational centers can play in the promotion of child and adolescent mental health is shown, using, as an example, two problems: Bullying-cyberbullying and depression in childhood and adolescence. CONCLUSIONS: Schools should incorporate educational psychologists to develop assessment, prevention, and intervention activities, and schools must be contexts where emotional well-being is promoted and psychological and mental health problems are prevented. The work makes a proposal for intervention from educational psychology.

Educational Psychology: The Key to Prevention and Child-Adolescent Mental Health / Psicología Educativa: la Clave de la Prevención y de la Salud Mental Infanto-Juvenil

Background: Educational psychology ranks second, after clinical psychology, in terms of professional activity profiles but in recent decades, the role of the educational psychologist has blurred. Method: The specialized literature was reviewed, and previous works by the author on the subject were updated. Results: This article emphasizes the relevance of educational psychology for the prevention and promotion of child and adolescent mental health. For this purpose, we must delimit the functions of the psychologist in educational contexts, differentiating it from other professional roles. To this end: (1) the main functions of the educational psychologist with students, their families, and teachers are proposed; (2) the postgraduate training necessary to perform these functions is described; and (3) the relevant role that educational centers can play in the promotion of child and adolescent mental health is shown, using, as an example, two problems: Bullying-cyberbullying and depression in childhood and adolescence. Conclusions: Schools should incorporate educational psychologists to develop assessment, prevention, and intervention activities, and schools must be contexts where emotional well-being is promoted and psychological and mental health problems are prevented. The work makes a proposal for intervention from educational psychology.(AU)

Antecedentes: La psicología educativa ocupa el segundo lugar, después de la psicología clínica, en cuanto a perfiles de actividad profesional, sin embargo, en las últimas décadas el papel del psicólogo educativo se ha desdibujado. Método: Se revisó la literatura especializada y se actualizaron trabajos previos del autor sobre el tema. Resultados: El artículo enfatiza la relevancia de la psicología educativa en la prevención y la promoción de la salud mental infanto-juvenil. Para ello es necesario delimitar las funciones del psicólogo en contextos educativos, diferenciándolo de otros roles profesionales. Con esta finalidad: (1) se plantean las principales funciones del psicólogo educativo con el alumnado, sus familias y el profesorado; (2) se describe la formación de postgrado necesaria para desarrollar estas funciones; y (3) se evidencia el relevante papel que pueden tener los centros educativos en la promoción de la salud mental infanto-juvenil, utilizando, a modo de ejemplo, dos problemas: el bullying-cyberbullying y la depresión en la infancia y adolescencia. Conclusiones: Las escuelas deben incorporar psicólogos educativos para desarrollar actividades de evaluación, prevención e intervención, y deben ser contextos donde promover el bienestar emocional, prevenir problemas psicológicos y de salud mental. El trabajo aporta una propuesta de intervención desde la psicología educativa.(AU)

Parenting Styles and Self-Esteem in Adolescent Cybervictims and Cyberaggressors: Self-Esteem as a Mediator Variable.

BACKGROUND: Family relationships and self-esteem are relevant variables into the understanding of cyberbullying. However, little is known about the mediating role of self-esteem in the connections between cyberbullying and parenting. The study had two goals: (1) to analyze the relation between being a cybervictim and/or cyberaggressor and self-esteem, parents' acceptance/coercion, and parenting styles and (2) to explore whether self-esteem is a mediator in the relationship between parents' acceptance/coercion and being a cybervictim/cyberaggressor. METHOD: The sample comprises 3026 Spanish adolescents (51.5% girls and 48.5% boys) aged 12-18 years (Mage = 14.39; SD = 1.69). The study has a cross-sectional design, retrospective ex-post with multiple measurements. RESULTS: (1) cybervictims and cyberaggressors have low self-esteem, and their parents have a low level of involvement/acceptance and a high level of coercion/imposition towards their sons/daughters, (2) participants whose parents were authoritarian obtained significantly lower scores in self-esteem and higher scores in cybervictimization/cyberaggression, whereas those whose parents were indulgent obtained significantly higher scores in self-esteem and lower scores in cybervictimization/cyberaggression, and (3) it was found a mediation of self-esteem in the relationship between the involvement/acceptance of both parents and being a cybervictim, as well as between the father's coercion/imposition and being a cyberaggressor. CONCLUSION: An adequate level of self-esteem, high parental acceptance/involvement, and a reasonably low level of coercion/discipline as the parenting style can have very positive effects on the prevention of cyberbullying.

Developing Children's Creativity and Social-Emotional Competencies through Play: Summary of Twenty Years of Findings of the Evidence-Based Interventions "Game Program".

This work presents the results of four cooperative-creative game programs (Game Programs). In all four studies, experimental designs with repeated pretest-posttest measures and control groups were used. Validation samples ranged from 86 to 178 participants, randomly assigning participants to the experimental and control conditions. Before and after each program, a battery of assessment instruments was applied to measure the variables under study. The intervention consists of conducting a weekly game session during the school year. The results of the posttest covariance analyses confirmed a significant impact: (1) in social development, by increasing various positive social behaviors and decreasing many negative social behaviors; by increasing assertive cognitive strategies and prosocial resolution of interpersonal problems; and by enhancing relationships and positive communication among group members; (2) in emotional development, by improving self-concept, peer image, and emotional stability; and (3) in cognitive development, by increasing verbal intelligence, verbal and graphic-figurative creativity, as well as creative personality behaviors and traits. This work provides empirical evidence of the relevance of cooperative-creative play in child development.

El bullying en el País Vasco: prevalencia y diferencias en función del sexo y la orientación sexual / Bullying in the Basque Country: Prevalence and differences depending on sex and sexual orientation

Todos los estudiantes sufren el riesgo de ser víctima de conductas agresivas de bullying durante el transcurso de su vida. Sin embargo, existen colectivos con mayor riesgo de sufrir estas conductas, en especial, el colectivo LGTB. Este estudio tiene tres objetivos: (1) analizar la prevalencia de víctimas y agresores de bullying entre adolescentes de secundaria, (2) explorar diferencias en función del sexo y (3) conocer las diferencias en función de la orientación sexual. Una muestra compuesta por 1,748 adolescentes del País Vasco cumplimentó dos cuestionarios. Los resultados evidencian (1) un elevado porcentaje de víctimas (41.6% globales, 11% severas) y de agresores (28.5% globales, 2,7% severos), (2) que las chicas muestran mayor victimización y los chicos agresión y (3) que hay un mayor porcentaje de víctimas no-heterosexuales, en especial de gais y bisexuales. En conclusión, las personas LGTB muestran una mayor vulnerabilidad a sufrir acoso escolar, por lo que es necesario desarrollar e implementar programas antidiscriminatorios en la comunidad educativa

Every student is at risk of aggressive bullying behavior during their lifetime. However, there are groups with a higher risk of suffering these aggressive behaviors, especially the LGTB group. This study has three objectives: (1) to analyze the prevalence of victims and aggressors of bullying among high school adolescents; (2) to explore differences based on sex; and (3) to identify differences based on sexual orientation. A sample consisting of 1,748 adolescents from the Basque Country completed two questionnaires. The results show (1) a high percentage of victims (41.6% global, 11% severe), as well as aggressors (28.5% global, 2.7% severe); (2) that girls show greater victimization and boys show aggression; and (3) a higher percentage of non-heterosexual victims, especially gay and bisexual. In conclusion, LGTB people show greater vulnerability to suffer bullying and, therefore, the need to develop and implement anti-discrimination programs in the educational community

Cyberaggression in Adolescents of Bolivia: Connection with Psychopathological Symptoms, Adaptive and Predictor Variables.

Concern about the increase of cyberbullying underlies this study, which had four objectives: (1) to calculate the prevalence of cyberaggressors; (2) to compare non-cyberaggressors with cyberaggressors in other bullying/cyberbullying roles, in psychopathological symptoms, and in self-image of masculinity/femininity, happiness, and empathy; (3) to analyze whether cyberaggressors consulted with a psychologist more than non-cyberaggressors; and (4) to identify predictor variables of cyberaggression. Participants were 1558 Bolivian students aged 13 to 17 years. Seven evaluation instruments were administered, using a descriptive, comparative, cross-sectional methodology. Results: (1) 32.7% of cyberaggressors (27.4% occasional, 5.3% severe) were found, with a higher percentage of males; (2) compared to non-cyberaggressors, cyberaggressors engaged in more face-to-face bullying behaviors, suffered more face-to-face victimization and cybervictimization, had more psychopathological symptoms (depression, somatization, obsession-compulsion, interpersonal sensitivity, anxiety, hostility, paranoid ideation, psychoticism), higher overall level of psychopathology, had requested psychological assistance in a greater proportion, self-defined with many attributes associated with masculinity, and felt less happiness and less empathy; and (3) being or having been a cybervictim, being or having been an aggressor of face-to-face bullying, low empathetic joy, and a self-image based on attributes associated with masculinity were predictors of cyberaggression. The need for therapeutic intervention with all those involved and the importance of prevention in the school context are discussed.

Risk factors for being a victim of online grooming in adolescents / Factores de riesgo de ser víctima de online grooming en adolescentes

BACKGROUND: The risk of child grooming has spread exponentially with the massive access of adolescents to social networks and the internet. The aim of the study was to examine the personal factors (body self-esteem and disinhibition) and erotic-sexual factors (sexual initiation strategies and erotic-pornographic sexting) that predict grooming. METHOD: The sample was comprised of 1,200 adolescents aged between 12 and 16 years (M = 14.54, SD = 1.17; 50.83% girls). A cross-sectional design with self-report data was used and structural equation modeling (SEM) with mediation analysis was performed. RESULTS: The results indicated two paths explaining child grooming: 1) physical attractiveness and disinhibition are indirectly associated with grooming through erotic sexting and direct sexual initiation strategies; both of which partially mediate this relationship; 2) disinhibited behavior has an indirect impact on grooming; pornographic sexting and coercive strategies acting as mediators. The semi-partial mediation model explains 54% of the variance of grooming. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the urgent need to implement prevention programs considering these attitudes and behaviors that function as precursors of victimization and the risk of falling into pedophile networks

ANTECEDENTES: el riesgo de grooming se ha propagado exponencialmente con el acceso masivo de los adolescentes a las redes sociales y al internet. El objetivo del estudio fue conocer los factores personales (autoestima corporal y desinhibición) y los factores erótico-sexuales (estrategias de avance sexual y sexting erótico-pornográfico) que predicen el grooming. MÉTODO: los participantes fueron 1.200 adolescentes entre 12 y 16 años (M = 14.54, DT = 1.17, 50.83 % chicas). Se utilizó un diseño transversal con datos de auto-informes y se aplicó un modelo de ecuaciones estructurales (SEM) con análisis de mediación. RESULTADOS: los resultados indican dos vías para explicar el grooming: 1) el atractivo físico y la desinhibición influyen en el grooming de forma indirecta a través del sexting erótico y las estrategias de avance sexual directas que median parcialmente esta relación; 2) la conducta desinhibida tiene un impacto indirecto sobre el grooming, actuando como mediadores el sexting pornográfico y las estrategias de coerción. El modelo de mediación explica un 54 % de la varianza del grooming. CONCLUSIONES: estos resultados nos alertan de la necesidad de implementar programas preventivos considerando estas actitudes y conductas, que funcionan como factores de riesgo de la victimización y de caer en redes pedófilas

Risk factors for being a victim of online grooming in adolescents.

BACKGROUND: The risk of child grooming has spread exponentially with the massive access of adolescents to social networks and the internet. The aim of the study was to examine the personal factors (body self-esteem and disinhibition) and erotic-sexual factors (sexual initiation strategies and erotic-pornographic sexting) that predict grooming. METHOD: The sample was comprised of 1,200 adolescents aged between 12 and 16 years (M = 14.54, SD = 1.17; 50.83% girls). A cross-sectional design with self-report data was used and structural equation modeling (SEM) with mediation analysis was performed. RESULTS: The results indicated two paths explaining child grooming: 1) physical attractiveness and disinhibition are indirectly associated with grooming through erotic sexting and direct sexual initiation strategies; both of which partially mediate this relationship; 2) disinhibited behavior has an indirect impact on grooming; pornographic sexting and coercive strategies acting as mediators. The semi-partial mediation model explains 54% of the variance of grooming. CONCLUSIONS: These findings highlight the urgent need to implement prevention programs considering these attitudes and behaviors that function as precursors of victimization and the risk of falling into pedophile networks.

Intrapersonal Emotional Intelligence during Adolescence: Sex Differences, Connection with other Variables, and Predictors.

This study explores Intrapersonal Emotional Intelligence (IEI) with the objectives of: (1) analyzing possible differences due to sex and age, and the request for psychological assistance for behavioral and emotional problems; (2) finding evidence of personality traits, social behaviors, and parental socialization styles that are characteristic of adolescents with low IEI; and (3) identifying variables that predict high IEI. The sample comprised 2283 participants aged 12-17 years from the Basque Country (northern Spain). Results: (1) Females had greater emotional attention capacity but there were no sex differences in emotional comprehension and emotion regulation; (2) adolescents aged 12-14 showed higher scores in comprehension and emotion regulation than those aged 15-17; (3) adolescents who consulted a psychologist for problems (anxiety, depression, violence, etc.) had lower emotion regulation; (4) adolescents with low IEI had less empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, openness, agreeableness, and responsibility, and lower use of cooperative and passive conflict-resolution strategies, and their parents had a low level of acceptance-affection towards their children. They also engaged in more bullying/cyberbullying and antisocial behaviors. (5) High IEI predictor variables were: using cooperative conflict-resolution strategies; traits such as extroversion, responsibility, openness, and empathy; and a high level of maternal acceptance-affection. The work identifies relevant variables for designing intervention programs and shows the importance of promoting IEI and interpersonal emotional intelligence as a factor in the development and prevention of bullying/cyberbullying.

Variables familiares relacionadas con el bullying y el cyberbullying: una revisión sistemática / Family Variables Related to Bullying and Cyberbullying: A Systematic Review / familiares relacionadas com o bullying e o cyberbullying: uma revisão sistemática

Resumen Objetivo. Revisar los estudios que han analizado la relación de bullying/cyberbullying con variables del contexto familiar. Método. Revisión sistemática, basada en el protocolo Prisma, de los documentos registrados en las principales bases de datos de psicología, que incluían las palabras clave bullying/cyberbullying y familia/padres, entre 2004 y 2017. Setenta y cuatro artículos cumplieron los criterios de inclusión. Resultados. La revisión evidenció las siguientes variables familiares asociadas con cada rol: (a) víctimas de bullying: padres/madres autoritarios, punitivos o permisivos; hogares disfuncionales, baja armonía familiar, conflictos, pobre comunicación; reciben muchas críticas, bajo apoyo/atención parental o sobreprotección; (b) cibervíctimas: padres/madres autoritarios o negligentes, conflictos familiares, bajo apoyo parental, padres/madres distantes, vínculos emocionales negativos; (c) agresores de bullying: padres/madres autoritarios, punitivos o permisivos, hogares disfuncionales, conflictos entre padres/madres, violencia doméstica, reciben rechazo, crítica y poco afecto parental; (d) ciberagresores: padres/madres autoritarios, negligentes o permisivos, y conflictos familiares. Por último, resultaron factores protectores: padres/madres democráticas, equilibrados, sin conflictos domésticos, cohesión familiar, interacciones de calidad, fácil comunicación padres-hijos, padres/madres apoyan a sus hijos, son cercanos y fomentan el apego seguro. Conclusión. Algunas variables familiares pueden ser relevantes, aunque en la probabilidad de convertirse en víctima o agresor de bullying y cyberbullying influyan otros factores, como los personales.

Abstract Objective. To review studies that have analyzed the relationship of bullying and cyberbullying with the family context. Method. PRISMA protocol for systematic reviews was used in all documents registered in the main psychology databases featuring the keywords bullying/cyberbullying and family/parents, between 2004 and 2017. Seventy-four articles met the inclusion criteria. Results. The review revealed the following familiar variables associated with each role. Victims of bullying: authoritarian, punitive, negligent, or permissive parents; dysfunctional homes, low family harmony, conflicts, poor parent-child communication; criticism, low parental support/attention, or overprotection. Cyber-victims: authoritarian or negligent parents; family conflicts, low parental support, distant parents, negative emotional bonding with parents. Bullies: authoritarian, punitive or permissive parents; dysfunctional homes, parental conflicts, domestic violence; rejection, criticism, and little parental affection. Cyberbullies: authoritarian, negligent or permissive parents, and family conflicts. Protective factors: democratic, balanced parents; no domestic conflicts, family cohesion, quality interactions, easy parent-child communication, parents support and care for their children, close-knit relationships, and foster secure attachment. Conclusion. Some family variables may be relevant, although the probability of becoming a victim or aggressor of bullying and cyberbullying may be influenced by other factors.

Resumo Escopo . Revisar os estudos que têm analisado a relação bullying/cyberbullying com variáveis do contexto familiar. Metodologia . Revisão sistemática, baseada no protocolo Prisma, dos documentos registrados nas principais bases de dados de psicologia, que incluíram as palavras chave bullying/cyberbullying e família/pais, entre 2004 e 2017. Setenta e quatro artigos cumpriram os critérios de inclusão. Resultados . A revisão evidenciou as seguintes variáveis familiares associadas com cada rol: (a) vítimas de bullying (pais/mais autoritários, punitivos ou permissivos; lares disfuncionais, baixa harmonia familiar, conflitos, pobre comunicação; recebem muitas críticas, baixo apoio/atenção parental ou sobre proteção); (b) cyber vítimas (pais/mais autoritários ou negligentes, conflitos familiares, baixo apoio parental, pais/mais distantes, vínculos emocionais negativos); (c) agressores de bullying (pais/mais autoritários, negligentes ou permissivos, lares disfuncionais, conflitos entre pais/mais, violência doméstica, recebem rejeito, crítica e pouco afeto parental); (d) cyber agressores (pais/mais autoritários, negligentes ou permissivos, e conflitos familiares); (e) fatores protetores (pais/mais democráticos, equilibrados, sem conflitos domésticos, coesão familiar, interações de qualidade, fácil comunicação pais-filhos, pais/mais apoiam seus filhos, são próximos e fomentam o apego seguro). Conclusão . Algumas variáveis familiares podem ser relevantes, embora na probabilidade de se converter em vítima ou agressor de bullying e cyberbullyuing influam outros fatores, como os pessoais.

Bullying y cyberbullying: diferencias de sexo en víctimas, agresores y observadores / Bullying and Cyberbullying: Sex Differences in Victims, Aggressors and Observers / Bullying e cyberbullying: diferenças de sexo em vítimas, agressores e observadores

Resumen Objetivo. Identificar si existen diferencias entre sexos en conductas de bullying y cyberbullying entre los adolescentes de La Rioja. Método. La muestra estuvo constituida por 979 adolescentes, 50.45 % varones y 49.6 % mujeres, entre los 13 y los 18 años de edad, a quienes se les aplicó la batería Cyberbullying Screening para explorar el acoso entre iguales. Resultados. Los resultados evidenciaron que: (a) hay un mayor porcentaje de mujeres víctimas de bullying y cyberbullying; (b) los chicos dijeron ser más agresores que las chicas, tanto en conductas de bullying como de cyberbullying; (c) las mujeres dicen observar más conductas de bullying y cyberbullying que los varones, siendo significativa la diferencia con respecto a este último; y (d) el porcentaje de víctimas de agresiones cara a cara y cyberbullying se asemeja entre mujeres y varones, siendo no significativa la diferencia. Conclusión. Estos datos evidencian que los varones son más agresores, mientras que las mujeres son mayormente víctimas, por ello, es importante tener presente la diferencia de roles de género y su implicación en los programas de prevención.

Abstract Objective. The study aims to analyze differences in bullying and cyberbullying between the sexes. Method. The sample consisted of 949 adolescents between 13 to 18 years old, 50.45% males and 49.6% females, students from compulsory secondary school. The Cyberbullying. Screening of Peer Harassment test was administered Results. The results showed that (a) the percentage of female victims of bullying and cyberbullying was higher than the percentage of male victims; (b) males claimed to participate in significantly more face to face aggression and cyberbullying behaviors than women; (c) the percentage of female observers of bullying was higher than that of males, and significantly more in relation to cyberbullying; and (d) the percentage of victims of bullying and cyberbullying was similar between males and females. Conclusion. Males are more frequently aggressors while females are more frequently victims. gender roles could be considered a possible influence and a greater sensitivity of girls in these issues.

Resumo Escopo. Identificar a possibilidade de existência de diferenças entre sexos em condutas de bullying e cyberbullying entre adolescentes de La Rioja, Espanha. Metodologia. A amostra esteve constituída por 979 adolescentes, 50.45% homens e 49.5% mulheres, entre os 13 e os 18 anos de idade, e foi aplicada a bateria Cyberbullying Screening para explorar o acosso entre iguais. Resultados. Os resultados evidenciaram que: (a) tem um maior porcentagem de mulheres vítimas de bullying e cyberbullying; (b) os homens disseram ser mais agressores que as mulheres, tanto em condutas de bullying como de cyberbullying; (c) as mulheres dizem observar mais condutas de bullying e cyberbullying que os homens, sendo significativa a diferença com respeito a este último; e (d) a porcentagem de vítimas de agressões cara a cara e cyberbullying é similar entre homens e mulheres, sendo não significativa a diferença. Conclusão. Estes dados evidenciam que os homens sao mais agressores, enquanto as mulheres são maiormente vítimas, pelo qual, é importante ter presente a diferencia de roles de gênero e sua implicação nos programas de prevenção.

Cybervictimization among secondary students: social networking time, personality traits and parental education.

BACKGROUND: Cyberbullying among children and adolescents is a major public health concern. However, research has not yet definitively identified the risk factors associated with cybervictimization. The purpose of this study was to determine the association of cybervictimization with use of social networks, personality traits and parental education in secondary students. METHODS: The study population consisted of 765 secondary students (56.5% girls) from Majorca (Spain) who were aged 15.99 years (grade 4). The data were from the 16 secondary school centers that participated in the ITACA Project, a multi-center, cluster randomized controlled trial. Cybervictimization was measured by the Garaigordobil Cybervictimization Scale, and the Big Five Questionnaire for Children was used to assess personality traits. RESULTS: Results showed that 39.9% of the students were cybervictims. Univariate analysis indicated that more girls than boys were cybervictimized (43.1% vs 35.7%). Cybervictims spent more time in social networking sites than non-victims (6 h 30 min vs. 5 h 16 min) and had greater emotional instability (0.16 vs. -0.23) and extraversion (0.11 vs. -0.09) and were less conscientious (- 0.001 vs. 0.20). Multivariable analysis indicated that social networking time was not significantly associated with cybervictimization after controlling for personality traits, but the same personality traits remained significantly associated. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that cyberbullying is a frequent and relevant problem in adolescents. Big Five personality traits are related with cybervictimization. Possible ways to design interventions include promoting social leisure activities, encourage responsible attitudes and provide stress coping tools.

Victimization and perpetration of bullying/cyberbullying: connections with emotional and behavioral problems and childhood stress / La victimización y perpetración de acoso/ciberacoso escolar: su relación con los problemas emocionales y de comportamiento y con el estrés infantil

The purpose of the study was to analyze the connections between victimization and perpetration of face-to-face bullying and cyberbullying with self-perceived childhood stress and diverse emotional and behavioral problems (EBPs) evaluated by parents. Participants were 1,993 students, aged 9-13 years, from the Basque Country (Spain) (49.8% females). The results of the analyses of variance (MANOVA-ANOVA) and correlational analyses showed that: (1) students who had higher scores in victimization and perpetration of bullying/cyberbullying had significantly high levels of stress and many EBPs; (2) participants who had higher scores in victimization/cybervictimization and perpetration of bullying obtained higher scores in all the dimensions of stress, while those who had higher scores in cyberaggression only showed higher school stress; (3) students who had higher scores in victimization/cybervictimization manifested internalizing and externalizing EBPs, whereas those who had higher scores in perpetration of bullying/cyberbullying had fewer internalizing problems; and (4) children who obtained higher scores in victimization and perpetration of bullying/cyberbullying had received psychological counseling significantly more frequently in the past year than those who had lower scores in indicators of bullying/cyberbullying. The importance of preventing/intervening in bullying situations to reduce psychopathological problems is emphasized in the discussion

El estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar la relación entre victimización y perpetración de acoso escolar presencial y ciberacoso con el estrés infantil autopercibido y con los problemas emocionales y de conducta (PEC) evaluados por los padres. Participaron 1,993 estudiantes, de 9 a 13 años, del País Vasco (España) (49,8% mujeres). Los resultados de los análisis de varianza (MANOVA-ANOVA) y correlacionales mostraron que: (1) los estudiantes que tenían mayores puntuaciones en victimización y perpetración de acoso/ciberacoso escolares tenían significativamente alto nivel de estrés y muchos PEC; (2) los participantes que tenían puntuaciones superiores en victimización/cibervictimización y perpetración de acoso escolar obtuvieron mayores puntuaciones en todas las dimensiones del estrés, mientras que aquellos que tenían altas puntuaciones en ciberagresión únicamente mostraban mayor estrés escolar; (3) los participantes que tuvieron mayor puntuación en victimización/cibervictimización mostraban PEC internalizantes y externalizantes y aquellos con mayor puntuación en agresión/ciberagresion tenían menos problemas internalizantes; (4) los niños que obtuvieron mayores puntuaciones en victimización y perpetración de acoso/ciberacoso escolares habían acudido significativamente más al psicólogo en el último año que aquellos que tuvieron menores puntuaciones en los indicadores de acoso/ciberacoso escolares. El debate destaca la importancia de prevenir/tratar el acoso para disminuir los problemas psicopatológicos

Cyberbullying in Gifted Students: Prevalence and Psychological Well-Being in a Spanish Sample.

The differential characteristics of gifted students can make them vulnerable to cyberbullying. There is very little empirical evidence about cyberbullying and giftedness. In the Spanish context, it is unexplored. The main goal of this work is to determine the prevalence of cyberbullying, its distribution in the different roles, and its relationship with other psychological variables. A cross-sectional study was performed with 255 gifted students (M = 11.88 years, SD = 2.28 years) in Spain (155 males, 60.8%). We used the cyberbullying test and the Spanish versions of the DASS-21, ISEL, KIDSCREEN-10, and the SWLS. The results indicate that 25.1% of the students are pure-cybervictims, 3.9% pure-cyberbullies, and 6.6% cyberbully-victims. Pure-cybervictims and cyberbully-victims present worse scores (p < 0.001) in health-related quality of life, depression, life satisfaction and stress than the uninvolved individuals. The results suggest that the gifted sample presents more cybervictimization and less cyberbullying than observed in other studies of the general population.

Child and Adolescent Depression: A Review of Theories, Evaluation Instruments, Prevention Programs, and Treatments.

Depression is the principal cause of illness and disability in the world. Studies charting the prevalence of depression among children and adolescents report high percentages of youngsters in both groups with depressive symptoms. This review analyzes the construct and explanatory theories of depression and offers a succinct overview of the main evaluation instruments used to measure this disorder in children and adolescents, as well as the prevention programs developed for the school environment and the different types of clinical treatment provided. The analysis reveals that in mental classifications, the child depression construct is no different from the adult one, and that multiple explanatory theories must be taken into account in order to arrive at a full understanding of depression. Consequently, both treatment and prevention should also be multifactorial in nature. Although universal programs may be more appropriate due to their broad scope of application, the results are inconclusive and fail to demonstrate any solid long-term efficacy. In conclusion, we can state that: (1) There are biological factors (such as tryptophan-a building block for serotonin-depletion, for example) which strongly influence the appearance of depressive disorders; (2) Currently, negative interpersonal relations and relations with one's environment, coupled with social-cultural changes, may explain the increase observed in the prevalence of depression; (3) Many instruments can be used to evaluate depression, but it is necessary to continue to adapt tests for diagnosing the condition at an early age; (4) Prevention programs should be developed for and implemented at an early age; and (5) The majority of treatments are becoming increasingly rigorous and effective. Given that initial manifestations of depression may occur from a very early age, further and more in-depth research is required into the biological, psychological and social factors that, in an interrelated manner, may explain the appearance, development, and treatment of depression.

Evaluation of the effects of a childhood depression prevention program.

The study aimed to design and evaluate a program for the prevention of childhood depression ("Pozik-Bizi" [in English, "Live-Happily"]), comparing its effects with a socio-emotional intervention program based on cooperative play. The sample comprised 420 students aged 7 to 10 years from the Basque Country, 51.9% were randomly assigned to the experimental condition ("Pozik-Bizi") program and 48.1% to the control group ("Play program"). Using a pretest-posttest repeated measures experimental design, 7 evaluation instruments were administered. When comparing the two interventions, it was confirmed that those who participated in the "Pozik-Bizi" program significantly decreased their level of clinical maladjustment, school maladjustment, emotional, and behavioral problems, and they increased positive behaviors that inhibit depression. However, the cooperative play program improved self-concept and social skills significantly more than the "Pozik-Bizi" program. The effect size in all the variables was small. The discussion analyzes the effectiveness of specific programs of prevention of childhood depression versus global programs of social-emotional development. This work provides a program to prevent childhood depression that has been shown to be effective in the reduction of clinical variables. In addition, this study confirms the positive potential of programs of cooperative play, to increase self-concept and social skills.

Mild and severe childhood depression: differences and implications for prevention programs in the school setting.

PURPOSE: The study had two goals as follows: 1) to identify the prevalence of children with mild and severe depression (MD and SD), exploring sex differences; and 2) to determine possible significant differences in adaptive and clinical variables between children with different levels of depression (absence of depression, MD, and SD). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We used a sample of 420 participants aged 7-10 years (53.3% boys) enrolled in third and fourth grade of primary education, from schools in the Basque Country (Spain). The Children's Depression Scale (CDS, self-assessment) was administered as well as six more assessment instruments. RESULTS: It was found that 84.2% of children had no depression, 10% had MD, and 5.8% had SD. Compared with children with depressive symptoms, participants without depression had significantly: 1) lower levels of maladjustment, stress, emotional symptoms, internalizing problems, and behavioral problems; and 2) higher levels of personal adjustment, resilience, social skills, and self-concept. In addition, children with MD had significantly lower levels of clinical maladjustment, emotional symptoms, and stress than children with SD. However, no differences were found in school maladjustment, internalizing problems, behavioral problems, personal adjustment, resilience, social skills, and self-concept between children with MD and SD. CONCLUSION: The discussion emphasizes the importance of identifying children with MD and implementing universal prevention programs from an early age.

Bullying y cyberbullying: diferencias en función del sexo en estudiantes de quinto y sexto curso de educación primaria / Bullying and Cyberbullying: Sex-Based Differences in the 5th and 6th Grade of Primary Education

Resumen La literatura científica ha encontrado resultados discrepantes en el análisis de las diferencias en función del sexo en bullying y sobre todo en cyberbullying. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo analizar estas diferencias entre sexos en una muestra del último ciclo de educación primaria del País Vasco. Se administró el test "Cyberbullying: Screening de acoso entre iguales", a 1.993 (edad media = 10,68) participantes, el 50,2% niños y el 48,8% niñas. En bullying los resultados muestran similar porcentaje de víctimas-puras, agresores-puros y observadores en ambos sexos; únicamente se confirmó un porcentaje mayor de niños víctimas-agresivas. Analizando las conductas sufridas y perpetradas, se encontró que un porcentaje significativamente mayor de niños participaba como víctima, agresor y observador de agresiones físicas, verbales y psicológicas. La puntuación media de conducta sufrida, realizada y observada fue también significativamente mayor en los niños. En cyberbullying los porcentajes en ambos sexos en todos los roles fueron similares. Sin embargo, al analizar las conductas, se encontró que un porcentaje mayor de niños es víctima de agresiones para grabarlas y subirlas a internet y que observa llamadas anónimas para asustar, mientras que un mayor porcentaje de niñas observa conductas de acoso sexual. Finalmente, la puntuación media de cibervictimización fue significativamente mayor en los niños. Este estudio aporta información sobre una problemática de interés y resalta la importancia de crear programas de intervención para niños y niñas de estas edades.

Abstract The scientific literature has found dissenting results upon analyzing gender-based differences in bullying - and especially in cyberbullying. This study undertook to analyze these differences between sexes in a sample of the last cycle of primary education in the Basque Country. The "Cyberbullying: Screening of peer harassment" test was administered to 1993 participants (average age = 10.68) - 50.2% boys and 48.8% girls. As for bullying the results show a similar percentage of pure-victims, pure-bullies and bystanders in both sexes; only a higher percentage of victim-aggressive children was confirmed. Upon analyzing the behaviors suffered and perpetrated, it was found that a significantly higher percentage of children participated as victims, aggressors and bystanders of physical, verbal and psychological aggressions. The average score of behavior suffered, perpetrated and observed was also significantly higher in boys. Percentages in cyberbullying in both sexes were similar in all the roles. However, upon analyzing said behaviors, it was found that a greater percentage of children are victims of assaults (recording said assaults and uploading them to the Internet), and that they receive anonymous calls to scare them, whilst a greater percentage of girls observe behaviors of sexual harassment. Finally, the average cybervictimization score was significantly higher in children. This study provides information on a problem of public interest, and underscores the importance of creating intervention programs for children of these ages.

Prevalence of Bullying and Cyberbullying in the Last Stage of Primary Education in the Basque Country.

Bullying and cyberbullying pose a serious problem in our schools. Despite this research area's increasing relevance, most research into cyberbullying in the present day has focused only on adolescents. However, given the long-lasting effects of victimization, it is necessary to understand its prevalence throughout the different educational stages of students. This study aims to clarify the prevalence of bullying and cyberbullying among students in the 5th and 6th grades. A sample of 1,993 (Mage = 10.68, SD = 0.71; range 9-13) students completed the "Cyberbullying: Screening of Peer-Harassment" test. The results reveal that 20.3% (n = 404) were pure victims, 6.1% (n = 121) pure bullies, 23.9% (n = 476) bully-victims, and 28.9% (n = 575) pure bystanders of bullying. With respect to cyberbullying, 13.4% (n = 267) were pure cybervictims, 0.7% (n = 13) pure cyberbullies, 3.1% cyberbully-victims (n = 62), and 25.6% (n = 510) pure cyberbystanders. In addition, the results reveal that verbal aggression and offensive or insulting messages were the most prevalent forms of aggression in bullying and cyberbullying, respectively. 36.6% of the sample had suffered verbal aggression and 8.4% had received offending or insulting messages. These data show that bullying and cyberbullying are considerably prevalent in this educational stage.

Acoso y ciberacoso en educación primaria / Bullying and cyberbullying in primary education

La prevalencia del acoso y el ciberacoso se ha constatado a nivel mundial, pero para su prevención es necesario identificar su inicio en edades tempranas. Este estudio tuvo dos objetivos: 1) estudiar la prevalencia del acoso y ciberacoso en quinto y sexto de primaria; y 2) explorar la cantidad de conducta sufrida, realizada y observada de acoso/ciberacoso entre estudiantes de quinto y sexto de primaria. Participaron 1.993 niños del País Vasco (51,5% de quinto, 48,5% de sexto). Se administró el test "Cyberbullying. Screening de acoso entre iguales". Se encontró: 1) un mayor porcentaje de víctimas-agresivas en quinto curso, sin embargo, no se hallaron diferencias en el porcentaje de víctimas-puras, agresorespuros y observadores en función del curso; 2) un mayor porcentaje de cibervíctimas-puras, ciberagresores-puros, cibervíctimas-agresivas y ciberobservadores en sexto curso; 3) la cantidad de conducta de acoso cara a cara sufrida y realizada fue superior en quinto curso; y 4) la cantidad de conducta de ciberacoso sufrida y observada fue mayor en sexto curso. Los datos enfatizan la importancia de implementar programas para la prevención del acoso/ciberacoso desde este ciclo

The prevalence of bullying/cyberbullying has been well established globally. However, identifying its onset and prevalence at an early age is necessary for prevention. herefore, this study had two aims: (1) to study the prevalence of bullying/cyberbullying in fifth and sixth grade of primary school; and (2) to explore the level of victimization, perpetration and observed behavior among students in fifth and sixth grade of elementary school. 1,993 students from the Basque Country (51.5% fifth-graders, 48.5% sixth-graders) participated. The "Cyberbullying. Screening of Peer Harassment" test was administered. The results revealed that: (1) a significantly higher percentage of bully/victims was found in fifth grade, no differences were found for pure-victims, pure-bullies and bystanders as a function of age; (2) a higher percentage of pure-cybervictims, pure-cyberaggresors, cyberbully/victims and cyberobservers was found in sixth grade; (3) face-to-face victimization and aggression was greater in fifth grade (4) cybervictimization and cyberobservation was significantly higher in sixth grade These data emphasize the importance of implementing programs to prevent bullying/cyberbullying at this stage