Qualitative analysis of the factors associated with whistleblowing intentions among athletes from six European countries.

Although whistleblowing is thought to represent an effective mechanism for detecting and uncovering doping in sport, it has yet to become a widely adopted practice. Understanding the factors that encourage or discourage whistleblowing is of vital importance for the promotion of this practice and the development of pedagogical material to enhance the likelihood of whistleblowing. The current study employed a qualitative methodology to explore the personal and organisational factors that underpin intentions to blow the whistle or that may lead to engagement in whistleblowing behaviours in sport. Thirty-three competitive athletes across a range of sports took part in a semi-structured interview which sought to explore what they would do should they encounter a doping scenario. Content analysis revealed that whistleblowing is a dynamic process characterised by the interaction of a range of personal and organisational factors in determining the intention to report PED use. These factors included moral reasoning, a desire to keep the matter "in-house", perceived personal costs, institutional attitudes to doping, and social support. Analysis revealed a number of "intervening events", including a perceived lack of organisational protection (e.g., ethical leadership) within some sporting sub-cultures, which present an important obstacle to whistleblowing. The intention to report doping was underpinned by a "fairness-loyalty trade-off" which involved athletes choosing to adhere to either fairness norms (which relate to a sense that all people and groups are treated equally) or loyalty norms (which reflect preferential treatment towards an in-group) when deciding whether they would blow the whistle. The promotion of fairness norms that emphasise a group's collective interests might encourage athletes to view whistleblowing as a means of increasing group cohesiveness and effectiveness and thereby increase the likelihood of this practice.

Examining mindfulness and moral disengagement in doping: Perspective of Turkish wrestlers.

Introduction: Studies related to attitudes toward the use of prohibited substances in Turkish athletes are scarce. The World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) has implemented anti-doping educational policies emphasizing doping-related education in studies conducted among Turkish wrestlers. However, it is still unclear the extent to which the wrestlers comply and adhere to these anti-doping policies. No research has previously examined the effect of anti-doping education on athletes' mindfulness and moral disengagement in doping (MDD). Therefore, the present study has a two-fold objective: first, to examine whether doping-related education (DRE) and the status of being a national athlete (NA) have an effect on athlete mindfulness and MDD. Second, to analyze the relationship between each sub-dimensions of athlete mindfulness: awareness (ASD), judgment (JSD), and refocus (RSD) with MDD. Methods: A total of 409 male wrestlers participated in this study. MANOVA analysis showed that NA and DRE alone have no effect on MDD but have a general effect on mindfulness. Results: The highest effect was on the ASD of being an NA ( η p 2 = 0.173). When the interaction effect of NA*DRE was examined, significant difference in MDD (F = 8.218, p = 0.004), ASD (F = 8.476, p = 0.004), JSD (F = 5.844, p = 0.016), and RSD (F = 11.476, p = 0.001) were found. MDD has a weak negative relationship with ASD (r = -0.126) and RSD (r = -0.041) and a weak positive relationship with the JSD sub-dimension (r = 0.140). Those results suggest that being a NA and having received anti-doping education affect moral disengagement in doping and athletes' mindfulness. Discussion: As a conclusion, it is recommended to increase awareness and anti-doping education among national-standard Turkish wrestlers to prevent them from engaging in doping behaviors.

Moral Disengagement, Social Norms, and Motivational Profiles Influence Attitudes Toward Doping Among Spanish Athletics Coaches.

Coaches strongly influence athletes' attitudes toward doping and can shape athlete's beliefs, behaviors, and decisions to be for or against doping. Coached-centered studies examining multiple factors affecting coaches' doping attitudes and behavior are scarce. The aim of this study was to analyze for the first-time attitudes toward doping in athletics coaches using the Sport Drug Control Model (SDCM) as a theoretical framework. A secondary aim was to determine the factors in the model predicting attitude and susceptibility toward doping. A cross-sectional study was carried out using a sample consisting of 201 Spanish athletics competitive level coaches from whom 11.4% were female. Participants completed a cross-sectional online survey. Structural equation modeling showed a good fitness of the SDCM. Positive attitudes toward doping predicted high susceptibility to doping (ß = 0.39, p < 0.001). Moral disengagement (ß = 0.58, p < 0.001), descriptive norms (ß = 0.42, p = 0.001), ego-oriented goals (ß = 0.34, p < 0.05), and self-efficacy to refrain from doping (ß = 0.26, p < 0.05) displayed a significant influence on attitudes toward doping. Self-reported doping prevalence in coaches was 4.5%. These variables should be considered when designing anti-doping research projects and educational programs aiming at modifying coaches' attitudes toward doping. It is recommended to focus more efforts on coaches, without putting aside the athletes, and therefore turn coaches into reliable doping prevention factors. To this end, it is necessary to enhance scientific research and then develop, implement, and promote more educational programs targeting coaches, on a mandatory basis while covering the specific needs of coaches so that they can perform their role as anti-doping educators in an effective, committed, and proactive manner.

Attitudes Toward and Susceptibility to Doping in Spanish Elite and National-Standard Track and Field Athletes: An Examination of the Sport Drug Control Model.

The Sport Drug Control Model (SDCM) is likely to be the model which most explicitly represents the theoretical paradigm of the psychological study of the use of doping in sport. This model can be further developed through its analysis in different populations and cultures. The main aim of this study was to empirically test the SDCM while analyzing for the first time the intentions and attitudes toward doping in Spanish track and field athletes. A secondary aim was to assess the extent to which the variables in the model together predict attitude, susceptibility, and behavior toward the use of performance-enhancing substances. Participants were 281 Spanish elite and national-standard track and field athletes from whom 80.1% were 18-28 years old and 49.5% were females. Participants completed the SDCM questionnaire measuring morality, legitimacy, benefits appraisal, threat appraisal, self-efficacy to refrain from doping, reference groups' endorsement of doping methods/substances, use of legal supplements, availability and affordability of doping, attitudes toward doping, susceptibility to doping and, self-reported use of banned performance-enhancing substances or methods. Structural equation modeling supported a good fitness of the SDCM and confirmed that positive attitudes toward doping predicted high susceptibility to doping (ß = 0.55, p < 0.001), which is in turn associated with the use of prohibited substances and methods (ß = 0.12, p < 0.05). The factors that have most influence on attitudes toward doping are morality (ß = 0.46, p < 0.001) and reference group opinion (ß =0.62, p <0.001). Self-reported doping use was 9.6%. These findings confirm SDCM reproducibility and variability (as it accounts for several variables) in Spanish track and field competitive athletes. It is recommended to implement preventive programs which allow athletes to acquire a strong moral stance against doping and coaches to employ the tools required to instill and educate their athletes in rejecting these illegal practices that corrupt the integrity of competitive sport.