Modeling the Inflammatory Response of Traumatic Brain Injury Using Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell Derived Microglia.

The neuroinflammatory response after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is implicated as a key mediator of secondary injury in both the acute and chronic periods after primary injury. Microglia are the key innate immune cell in the central nervous system, responding to injury with the release of cytokines and chemokines. In this context, we aimed to characterize the downstream cytokine response of human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived microglia when stimulated with five separate cytokines identified after human TBI. The iPSC-derived microglia were exposed to interleukin (IL)-1ß, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in the concentration ranges identified in clinical TBI studies. The downstream cytokine response was measured against a panel of 37 separate cytokines over a 72h time-course. The secretome revealed concentration-, time- and combined concentration and time-dependent downstream responses. TNF appeared to be the strongest inducer of downstream cytokine changes (51), followed by IL-1ß (26) and IL-4 (19). IL-10 (11) and IL-6 (10) produced fewer responses. We also compare these responses with our previous studies of iPSC-derived neuronal and astrocyte cultures and the in vivo human TBI cytokine response. Notably, we found microglial culture to induce both a wider range of downstream cytokine responses and a greater fold change in concentration for those downstream responses, compared with astrocyte and neuronal cultures. In summary, we present a dataset for human microglial cytokine responses specific to the secretome found in the clinical context of TBI. This reductionist approach complements our previous datasets for astrocyte and neuronal responses and will provide a platform to enable future studies to unravel the complex neuroinflammatory network activated after TBI.

Astrocytes display cell autonomous and diverse early reactive states in familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is a rapidly progressive and fatal disease. Although astrocytes are increasingly recognized contributors to the underlying pathogenesis, the cellular autonomy and uniformity of astrocyte reactive transformation in different genetic forms of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis remain unresolved. Here we systematically examine these issues by using highly enriched and human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived astrocytes from patients with VCP and SOD1 mutations. We show that VCP mutant astrocytes undergo cell-autonomous reactive transformation characterized by increased expression of complement component 3 (C3) in addition to several characteristic gene expression changes. We then demonstrate that isochronic SOD1 mutant astrocytes also undergo a cell-autonomous reactive transformation, but that this is molecularly distinct from VCP mutant astrocytes. This is shown through transcriptome-wide analyses, identifying divergent gene expression profiles and activation of different key transcription factors in SOD1 and VCP mutant human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived astrocytes. Finally, we show functional differences in the basal cytokine secretome between VCP and SOD1 mutant human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived astrocytes. Our data therefore reveal that reactive transformation can occur cell autonomously in human amyotrophic lateral sclerosis astrocytes and with a striking degree of early molecular and functional heterogeneity when comparing different disease-causing mutations. These insights may be important when considering astrocyte reactivity as a putative therapeutic target in familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Focally administered succinate improves cerebral metabolism in traumatic brain injury patients with mitochondrial dysfunction.

Following traumatic brain injury (TBI), raised cerebral lactate/pyruvate ratio (LPR) reflects impaired energy metabolism. Raised LPR correlates with poor outcome and mortality following TBI. We prospectively recruited patients with TBI requiring neurocritical care and multimodal monitoring, and utilised a tiered management protocol targeting LPR. We identified patients with persistent raised LPR despite adequate cerebral glucose and oxygen provision, which we clinically classified as cerebral 'mitochondrial dysfunction' (MD). In patients with TBI and MD, we administered disodium 2,3-13C2 succinate (12 mmol/L) by retrodialysis into the monitored region of the brain. We recovered 13C-labelled metabolites by microdialysis and utilised nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) for identification and quantification.Of 33 patients with complete monitoring, 73% had MD at some point during monitoring. In 5 patients with multimodality-defined MD, succinate administration resulted in reduced LPR(-12%) and raised brain glucose(+17%). NMR of microdialysates demonstrated that the exogenous 13C-labelled succinate was metabolised intracellularly via the tricarboxylic acid cycle. By targeting LPR using a tiered clinical algorithm incorporating intracranial pressure, brain tissue oxygenation and microdialysis parameters, we identified MD in TBI patients requiring neurointensive care. In these, focal succinate administration improved energy metabolism, evidenced by reduction in LPR. Succinate merits further investigation for TBI therapy.