Subject(s)
Amino Acid Sequence/genetics , Betacoronavirus/genetics , Sequence Deletion/genetics , Viral Nonstructural Proteins/genetics , Base Sequence , COVID-19 , Coronavirus Infections/epidemiology , France/epidemiology , Genome, Viral/genetics , Humans , Pandemics , Pneumonia, Viral/epidemiology , SARS-CoV-2 , Sequence Analysis, RNA , Viral LoadABSTRACT
Seasonal influenza A and B viruses are important human pathogens responsible for significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. In addition, influenza A zoonotic viruses are a constant pandemic threat. These viruses present two major surface glycoproteins: the haemagglutinin (HA) and the neuraminidase (NA). These two glycoproteins both recognize the sialic acid and have complementary activities, the HA binds the sialic acid through its receptor-binding site, the NA is a receptor-destroying enzyme that cleaves α2-3 and α2-6-linked sialic acids. Therefore, the functional HA/NA balance is a critical factor for a good viral fitness and plays a major role in overcoming the host barrier and the efficiency of sustained human-to-human transmission. Although the two glycoproteins are in constant evolution, the HA/NA balance seems to remain stable in human viruses because an optimal balance is required to maintain good viral fitness. Understanding the evolution of influenza viruses requires an in-depth exploration of the HA/NA balance.
Subject(s)
Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/genetics , Influenza A virus/genetics , Influenza B virus/genetics , Neuraminidase/genetics , Viral Proteins/genetics , Drug Resistance, Multiple, Viral/genetics , Hemagglutinin Glycoproteins, Influenza Virus/metabolism , Humans , Influenza, Human/drug therapy , Neuraminidase/metabolism , Protein Conformation , Seasons , Viral Proteins/metabolismABSTRACT
Camembert cheeses are made from raw milk spiked with aflatoxin M1. Three aflatoxin M1 levels (7.5 micrograms/L, 3 micrograms/L, and 0.3 micrograms/L) are used. In curds 35.6, 47.1, and 57.7% of aflatoxin M1, respectively, are recovered, and in wheys 64.4, 52.9, and 42.3%, respectively, are recovered. During the first 15 days of storage, the aflatoxin M1 content of different cheeses decreases 25, 55, and 75%, respectively. A similar experiment is made with milk contaminated with 14C labeled aflatoxin M1. The same results are obtained, except for the behavior of aflatoxin M1 in cheese; the same 14C activity is recovered during storage for 30 days.