Regional variations in childbirth interventions and their correlations with adverse outcomes, birthplace and care provider: A nationwide explorative study.

BACKGROUND: Variations in childbirth interventions may indicate inappropriate use. Most variation studies are limited by the lack of adjustments for maternal characteristics and do not investigate variations in adverse outcomes. This study aims to explore regional variations in the Netherlands and their correlations with referral rates, birthplace, interventions, and adverse outcomes, adjusted for maternal characteristics. METHODS: In this nationwide retrospective cohort study, using a national data register, intervention rates were analysed between twelve regions among single childbirths after 37 weeks' gestation in 2010-2013 (n = 614,730). These were adjusted for maternal characteristics using multivariable logistic regression. Primary outcomes were intrapartum referral, birthplace, and interventions used in midwife- and obstetrician-led care. Correlations both between primary outcomes and between adverse outcomes were calculated with Spearman's rank correlations. FINDINGS: Intrapartum referral rates varied between 55-68% (nulliparous) and 20-32% (multiparous women), with a negative correlation with receiving midwife-led care at the onset of labour in two-thirds of the regions. Regions with higher referral rates had higher rates of severe postpartum haemorrhages. Rates of home birth varied between 6-16% (nulliparous) and 16-31% (multiparous), and was negatively correlated with episiotomy and postpartum oxytocin rates. Among midwife-led births, episiotomy rates varied between 14-42% (nulliparous) and 3-13% (multiparous) and in obstetrician-led births from 46-67% and 14-28% respectively. Rates of postpartum oxytocin varied between 59-88% (nulliparous) and 50-85% (multiparous) and artificial rupture of membranes between 43-52% and 54-61% respectively. A north-south gradient was visible with regard to birthplace, episiotomy, and oxytocin. CONCLUSIONS: Our study suggests that attitudes towards interventions vary, independent of maternal characteristics. Care providers and policy makers need to be aware of reducing unwarranted variation in birthplace, episiotomy and the postpartum use of oxytocin. Further research is needed to identify explanations and explore ways to reduce unwarranted intervention rates.

Mode of birth and medical interventions among women at low risk of complications: A cross-national comparison of birth settings in England and the Netherlands.

OBJECTIVES: To compare mode of birth and medical interventions between broadly equivalent birth settings in England and the Netherlands. METHODS: Data were combined from the Birthplace study in England (from April 2008 to April 2010) and the National Perinatal Register in the Netherlands (2009). Low risk women in England planning birth at home (16,470) or in freestanding midwifery units (11,133) were compared with Dutch women with planned home births (40,468). Low risk English women with births planned in alongside midwifery units (16,418) or obstetric units (19,096) were compared with Dutch women with planned midwife-led hospital births (37,887). RESULTS: CS rates varied across planned births settings from 6.5% to 15.5% among nulliparous and 0.6% to 5.1% among multiparous women. CS rates were higher among low risk nulliparous and multiparous English women planning obstetric unit births compared to Dutch women planning midwife-led hospital births (adjusted (adj) OR 1.89 (95% CI 1.64 to 2.18) and 3.66 (2.90 to 4.63) respectively). Instrumental vaginal birth rates varied from 10.7% to 22.5% for nulliparous and from 0.9% to 5.7% for multiparous women. Rates were lower in the English comparison groups apart from planned births in obstetric units. Transfer, augmentation and episiotomy rates were much lower in England compared to the Netherlands for all midwife-led groups. In most comparisons, epidural rates were higher among English groups. CONCLUSIONS: When considering maternal outcomes, findings confirm advantages of giving birth in midwife-led settings for low risk women. Further research is needed into strategies to decrease rates of medical intervention in obstetric units in England and to reduce rates of avoidable transfer, episiotomy and augmentation of labour in the Netherlands.

Satisfaction with caregivers during labour among low risk women in the Netherlands: the association with planned place of birth and transfer of care during labour.

BACKGROUND: The caregiver has an important influence on women's birth experiences. When transfer of care during labour is necessary, care is handed over from one caregiver to the other, and this might influence satisfaction with care. It is speculated that satisfaction with care is affected in particular for women who need to be transferred from home to hospital. We examined the level of satisfaction with the caregiver among women with planned home versus planned hospital birth in midwife-led care. METHODS: We used data from the prospective multicentre DELIVER (Data EersteLIjns VERloskunde) cohort-study, conducted in 2009 and 2010 in the Netherlands. Women filled in a postpartum questionnaire which contained elements of the Consumer Quality index. This instrument measures 'general rate of  satisfaction with the caregiver' (scale from 1 to 10, with cut-off of below 9) and 'quality of treatment by the caregiver' (containing 7 items on a 4 point Likert scale, with cut-off of mean of 4 or lower). RESULTS: Women who planned a home birth (n = 1372) significantly more often rated 'quality of treatment by caregiver' high than women who planned a hospital birth (n = 829). Primiparous women who planned a home birth significantly more often had a high rate (9 or 10) for 'general satisfaction with caregiver' (adj.OR 1.48; 95% CI 1.1, 2.0). Also, primiparous women who planned a home birth and had care transferred during labour (331/553; 60%) significantly more often had a high rate (9 or 10) for 'general satisfaction' compared to those who planned a hospital birth and who had care transferred (1.44; 1.0-2.1). Furthermore, they significantly more often rated 'quality of treatment by caregiver' high, than 276/414 (67%) primiparous women who planned a hospital birth and who had care transferred (1.65; 1.2-2.3). No differences were observed for multiparous women who had planned home or hospital birth and who had care transferred. CONCLUSIONS: Planning home birth is associated to a good experience of quality of care by the caregiver. Transferred planned home birth compared to a transferred planned hospital birth does not lead to a more negative experience of care received from the caregiver.

Effect of physical activity on vascular characteristics in young children.

BACKGROUND: Physical activity has long been proposed as an important modifiable cardiovascular risk factor in adults. We assessed whether physical activity already has an effect on childhood vasculature. METHODS: In the Wheezing-Illnesses-Study-in-Leidsche-Rijn birth cohort, we performed vascular ultrasound to measure carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) and functional properties (distensibility, elastic modulus) at 5 and 8 years of age. Child typical physical activities were inquired using a questionnaire completed by parents. Linear regression was used with physical activity level, expressed as a standardized value of time-weighted metabolic equivalent (MET) as the independent variable and vascular properties as dependent variables with further confounder adjustment and evaluation for possible body mass index and sex effect modifications. RESULTS: In 595 5-year-old children and in 237 of those who had reached the age of 8 years, we did not find statistically significant associations between total time-weighted MET and each vascular parameter, neither in pooled nor stratified analysis. However, sport activities were associated with thinner cIMT (-3.20 µm/SD, 95% CI -6.34, -0.22, p = 0.04) at 5 years of age; a similar pattern was seen for organized sport. This effect was strongest in children in the highest body mass index tertile (-5.38 µm/SD, 95% CI -10.54, -0.19, p = 0.04). At the age of 8 years, higher sport level tended to be associated with higher vascular distensibility (2.64 × 10(3) kPa/SD, 95% CI -0.18, 5.45, p = 0.07) although this was not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Sport activity may have beneficial effects on arteries of young children, particularly those with higher relative body weight.

Birth setting, transfer and maternal sense of control: results from the DELIVER study.

BACKGROUND: In the Netherlands, low risk women receive midwife-led care and can choose to give birth at home or in hospital. There is concern that transfer of care during labour from midwife-led care to an obstetrician-led unit leads to negative birth experiences, in particular among those with planned home birth. In this study we compared sense of control, which is a major attribute of the childbirth experience, for women planning home compared to women planning hospital birth under midwife-led care. In particular, we studied sense of control among women who were transferred to obstetric-led care during labour according to planned place of birth: home versus hospital. METHODS: We used data from the prospective multicentre DELIVER (Data EersteLIjns VERloskunde) cohort-study, conducted in 2009 and 2010 in the Netherlands. Sense of control during labour was assessed 6 weeks after birth, using the short version of the Labour Agentry Scale (LAS-11). A higher LAS-11 score indicates a higher feeling of control. We considered a difference of a minimum of 5.5 points as clinically relevant. RESULTS: Nulliparous- and parous women who planned a home birth had a 2.6 (95% CI 1.0, 4.3) and a 3.0 (1.6, 4.4) higher LAS score during first stage of labour respectively and during second stage a higher score of 2.8 (0.9, 4.7) and 2.3 (0.6, 4.0), compared with women who planned a hospital birth. Overall, women who were transferred experienced a lower sense of control than women who were not transferred. Parous women who planned a home birth and who were transferred had a 4.3 (0.2, 8.4) higher LAS score in 2nd stage, compared to those who planned a hospital birth and who were transferred. CONCLUSION: We found no clinically relevant differences in feelings of control among women who planned a home or hospital birth. Transfer of care during labour lowered feelings of control, but feelings of control were similar for transferred women who planned a home or hospital birth.As far as their expected sense of control is concerned, low risk women should be encouraged to give birth at the location of their preference.

Parental blood pressure is related to vascular properties of their 5-year-old offspring.

BACKGROUND: Adolescent offspring of hypertensive parents have increased carotid intima media thickness (CIMT) and arterial stiffness compared with offspring of normotensives. We assessed whether systolic blood pressure (SBP) of both parents is associated with the vasculature of their offspring as early as in childhood. METHODS: In the first 306 5-year-old children of the Wheezing-Illnesses-Study-Leidsche-Rijn birth cohort, CIMT, distensibility, and elastic modulus (EM) were obtained ultrasonographically. In 204 of 306 (67%) children, complete data on both maternal and paternal SBP were obtained from the linked database of the Utrecht Health Project. RESULTS: CIMT of the children was 0.58 µm (95% confidence interval (CI): 0.14, 1.0) greater with every 1-mm Hg higher maternal SBP. Maternal SBP and children's distensibility and EM were more strongly associated, negative and positive respectively, with increasing paternal SBP and vice versa (P value-for-interaction: 0.003 and 0.001, respectively). CIMT of children of whom both parents were in the highest SBP tertile was 17.9 µm (95% CI: 4.0, 31.9) greater compared with the CIMT of children of whom neither one of the parents had a SBP in the highest tertile. For EM and distensibility, these estimates were 20.1 kPa (95% CI: 1.1, 39.2) and -11.6 1/Mpa (95%-CI: -22.9, -0.31), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Higher maternal SBP is related to thicker arterial walls in their 5-year-old offspring. If both parents have higher SBP, the arterial wall of their offspring is thicker and stiffer.

Body fat distribution and early arterial changes in healthy 5-year-old children.

BACKGROUND: It is unknown at what age overweight starts to takes its toll on the vasculature. We studied the relation between body size measures and vascular characteristics in healthy 5-year-old children. METHODS: In 306 5-year-old children from an on-going birth cohort, body size characteristics were measured, including sonographic measurement of abdominal fat. Ultrasonographic measurements of the carotid artery were performed to obtain intima-media thickness (CIMT), arterial wall distensibility, and elastic modulus (EM). RESULTS: Increased body-weight was related to thicker CIMT (linear regression coefficient 2.25 µm/kg; P = 0.003), increased EM (2.73 kPa/kg; P = 0.01), and lower distensibility (-1.23 MPa(-1)/kg; P = 0.03). Similar relations were found for increased BMI with CIMT and EM. Increased intra-abdominal fat was related to thicker CIMT (9.19 µm/cm; P = 0.02), and increased waist circumference with thicker CIMT (2.17 µm/cm; P = 0.02), lower distensibility (-1.70 MPa(-1)/cm; P = 0.01), and higher EM (2.77 kPa/cm; P = 0.02), independent of BMI. CONCLUSION: For the first time it is demonstrated that increased general body mass and particularly waist circumference and intra-abdominal fat are related to thicker and stiffer arteries already early in life.

Parental smoking and vascular damage in their 5-year-old children.

BACKGROUND: The relation between smoke exposure in early life, the prenatal period in particular, and the vascular development of young children is largely unknown. METHODS: Data from the birth cohort participating in the WHISTLER-Cardio study were used to relate the smoking of parents during pregnancy to subsequent vascular properties in their children. In 259 participating children who turned 5 years of age, parental smoking data were updated and children's carotid artery intima-media thickness (CIMT) and arterial wall distensibility were measured by using ultrasonography. RESULTS: Children of mothers who had smoked throughout pregnancy had 18.8 µm thicker CIMT (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.1, 36.5, P = .04) and 15% lower distensibility (95% CI -0.3, -0.02, P = .02) after adjustment for child's age, maternal age, gender, and breastfeeding. The associations were not found in children of mothers who had not smoked in pregnancy but had smoked thereafter. The associations were strongest if both parents had smoked during pregnancy, with 27.7 µm thicker CIMT (95% CI 0.2, 55.3) and 21% lower distensibility (95% CI -0.4, -0.03). CONCLUSION: Exposure of children to parental tobacco smoke during pregnancy affects their arterial structure and function in early life.

The association between breastfeeding and the cardiovascular system in early childhood.

BACKGROUND: Breastfeeding is suggested to have beneficial effects on children's health and future health status. However, its cardiovascular effects in childhood and possibly later in life remain largely unclear. OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to determine the cardiovascular effects of exclusive breastfeeding in early childhood. DESIGN: We used the ongoing WHeezing Illnesses STudy LEidsche Rijn (WHISTLER) birth cohort to obtain data on infant feeding. In the first 306 children who were 5 y of age, ultrasonographic measurements of the carotid artery were performed to obtain carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT), distensibility, and elastic modulus. RESULTS: At 5 y of age, children who had been exclusively breastfed in infancy for 3 to 6 mo had a CIMT that was 21.1 µm greater than that of exclusively formula-fed children (95% CI: 5.0, 37.2 µm; P = 0.01, adjusted for confounders). CIMT was not significantly different between children exclusively breastfed for either <3 or >6 mo and formula-fed children. In addition, no significant differences in carotid stiffness were observed between groups. CONCLUSIONS: The duration of exclusive breastfeeding in infancy is related to properties of the carotid arterial wall at the age of 5 y, as shown by the greater CIMT in children who were exclusively breastfed for 3 to 6 mo. This relation was independent of early growth in infancy and current cardiovascular disease risk factors. The choice of infant feeding appears to have an effect on the vascular system already in early childhood.

Parental smoking and vascular damage in young adult offspring: is early life exposure critical? The atherosclerosis risk in young adults study.

OBJECTIVE: Our purpose was to study the association between familial and particularly fetal tobacco smoke exposure and vascular damage in young adulthood. METHODS AND RESULTS: From a cohort of 732 young adults, birth data were collected and in young adulthood ultrasound measurement of common carotid artery intima-media thickness (CIMT) was performed. Data on parental smoking were obtained by standardized questionnaires. Twenty-nine percent of the mothers smoked during pregnancy. Offspring of mothers who smoked had 13.4 microm thicker CIMT (95% CI: 5.5, 21.3; P=0.001) than offspring of mothers who did not smoke in pregnancy. Adjustment for known CIMT risk factors (participant's age, gender, BMI, pulse pressure, and LDL-cholesterol) yielded no change (9.4 microm, 95% CI: 1.9, 16.3, P=0.01) nor did adjustment for current smoking of parents (10.6 microm, 95% CI: 0.4 to 20.8, P=0.04), for participants' current smoking and pack-years (11.5 microm, 95% CI: 3.5 to 19.4, P=0.004) or for parental socioeconomic status (SES; 13.0 microm, 95% CI: 5.0, 21.1, P=0.002). Thicker CIMT was associated with exclusive paternal smoking in pregnancy, somewhat stronger with exclusive maternal smoking and strongest with both parents smoking (P (linear trend)=0.001). Offspring of particularly mothers who smoked an above median number of cigarettes in pregnancy had thicker CIMT than those smoking less than median or no cigarettes (P (linear trend) <0.0001). CONCLUSIONS: Permanent vascular damage is partly attributable to familial tobacco smoke exposure, an association that might be initiated in gestation.

Tobacco smoke exposure of pregnant mothers and blood pressure in their newborns: results from the wheezing illnesses study Leidsche Rijn birth cohort.

There is evidence to suggest that exposure of pregnant women to tobacco smoke is related to higher childhood blood pressure in their offspring. It is not well known whether this association is set in utero or by shared postnatal environments. The objective of this study was to assess the association between tobacco smoke exposure of pregnant mothers and blood pressure and heart rate of their newborns. In an unselected birth cohort, blood pressure and heart rate were measured in 456 infants at approximately 2 months of age. Smoking exposure of mothers in pregnancy was obtained by questionnaire. Of 456 mothers whose infants had blood pressure measured, 363 (79.6%) were not exposed to tobacco smoke in pregnancy, 63 (13.8%) did not smoke in pregnancy but were exposed by others, and 30 (6.6%) smoked. Infant offspring of mothers who had smoked during pregnancy had 5.4 mm Hg (95% CI: 1.2 to 9.7; P=0.01) higher systolic blood pressure levels than offspring of mothers who were not exposed to tobacco smoke in pregnancy, taking account of birth weight, infant age, gender, nutrition, and age of mother. No associations were found between maternal exposure to tobacco smoke in pregnancy and diastolic blood pressure. A positive association between maternal exposure to tobacco smoke and heart rate was largely explained by confounding. It can be concluded that maternal exposure to tobacco smoke in pregnancy has a substantial increasing effect on systolic blood pressure in early infancy.