Transcatheter arterial embolization for acute nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding: Indications, techniques and outcomes.

Over the past three decades, transcatheter arterial embolization has become the first-line therapy for the management of acute nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding that is refractory to endoscopic hemostasis. Advances in catheter-based techniques and newer embolic agents, as well as recognition of the effectiveness of minimally invasive treatment options, have expanded the role of interventional radiology in the treatment of bleeding for a variety of indications. Transcatheter arterial embolization is a fast, safe, and effective minimally invasive alternative to surgery, when endoscopic treatment fails to control acute bleeding from the upper gastrointestinal tract. This article describes the role of arterial embolization in the management of acute nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal bleeding and summarizes the literature evidence on the outcomes of endovascular therapy in such a setting.

Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt for acute variceal gastrointestinal bleeding: Indications, techniques and outcomes.

Acute variceal bleeding is a life-threatening condition that requires a multidisciplinary approach for effective therapy. The transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) procedure is a minimally invasive image-guided intervention used for secondary prevention of bleeding and as salvage therapy in acute bleeding. Emergency TIPS should be considered early in patients with refractory variceal bleeding once medical treatment and endoscopic sclerotherapy fail, before the clinical condition worsens. Furthermore, admission to specialized centers is mandatory in such a setting and regional protocols are essential to be organized effectively. This procedure involves establishment of a direct pathway between the hepatic veins and the portal veins to decompress the portal venous hypertension that is the source of the patient's bleeding. The procedure is technically challenging, especially in critically ill patients, and has a mortality of 30%-50% in the emergency setting, but has an effectiveness greater than 90% in controlling bleeding from gastro-esophageal varices. This review focuses on the role of TIPS in the setting of variceal bleeding, with emphasis on current indications and techniques for TIPS creation, TIPS clinical outcomes, and the role of adjuvant embolization of varices.