On the Meaning of the "P Factor" in Symmetrical Bifactor Models of Psychopathology: Recommendations for Future Research From the Bifactor-(S-1) Perspective.

Symmetrical bifactor models are frequently applied to diverse symptoms of psychopathology to identify a general P factor. This factor is assumed to mark shared liability across all psychopathology dimensions and mental disorders. Despite their popularity, however, symmetrical bifactor models of P often yield anomalous results, including but not limited to nonsignificant or negative specific factor variances and nonsignificant or negative factor loadings. To date, these anomalies have often been treated as nuisances to be explained away. In this article, we demonstrate why these anomalies alter the substantive meaning of P such that it (a) does not reflect general liability to psychopathology and (b) differs in meaning across studies. We then describe an alternative modeling framework, the bifactor-(S-1) approach. This method avoids anomalous results, provides a framework for explaining unexpected findings in published symmetrical bifactor studies, and yields a well-defined general factor that can be compared across studies when researchers hypothesize what construct they consider "transdiagnostically meaningful" and measure it directly. We present an empirical example to illustrate these points and provide concrete recommendations to help researchers decide for or against specific variants of bifactor structure.

Consistency and source specificity of symptom ratings for Child and Adolescent Behavior Inventory Scales with mother, father, and teacher ratings of Spanish children.

The study determined consistency relative to a reference source (convergent validity for nonreference sources with a reference source) and specificity for nonreference sources in true score variance in Child and Adolescent Behavior Inventory (CABI) ADHD-inattentive (IN), ADHD-hyperactive/impulsive (HI), sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), limited prosocial emotions (LPE), depression, anxiety, academic impairment, and social impairment scale scores. A multiple indicator by single trait by correlated (methods-1) model with indicator-specific trait factors was used to evaluate CABI scale scores with mother, father, and teacher ratings of 2,142 Spanish children (49.49% girls; ages 8-13). Mother ratings served as the reference source with father and teacher ratings serving as nonreference sources. Father with mother ratings showed substantial convergent correlations for each CABI scale (.73 to .90). Teacher with mother ratings showed a substantial convergent correlation for academic impairment (.72), strong convergent correlations for ADHD-IN (.57), ADHD-HI (.46), SCT (.52), and depression (.46), and small-to-moderate convergent correlations for ODD (.33), LPE (.24), and anxiety (.22) scales. Source independent and context-specific measures with appropriate content validity for home and school settings are required to better understand the greater variability in consistency from teacher to mother ratings. These results provide new information for the use of the CABI with multiple sources. In addition, the study indicates how a multiple indicator by single trait by correlated (methods-1) model with indicator-specific trait factors can be used to better understand multiple source ratings of child and adolescent psychopathology and adjustment. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Do method effects generalize across traits (and what if they don't)?

OBJECTIVE: Multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) data can be analyzed with single-indicator confirmatory factor analysis (CFA-MTMM) models. Most single-indicator CFA-MTMM models imply-but do not allow testing-the restrictive assumption that method biases generalize (correlate) perfectly across different traits for a given method. METHOD: To examine the validity of this assumption, we identified and reviewed 20 published applications of multiple-indicator CFA-MTMM models, which allow testing this assumption. Based on simulated data, we demonstrate the consequences of violating the assumption of perfectly general method effects based on the CT-C(M - 1) approach. RESULTS: We extracted 111 heterotrait-monomethod method factor correlation estimates, which varied between |.01| and |1.0| (mean = .52) with most correlations being substantially smaller than |1|. The results of our review and simulations show that violations of the assumption of perfectly general method effects (a) are very common, (b) are difficult to detect based on model fit statistics, and (c) can lead to considerable bias in estimates of convergent validity, method specificity, reliability, and method factor correlations in single-indicator models. CONCLUSIONS: We recommend that researchers abandon the use of single-indicator CFA-MTMM models and that they use multiple-indicator CFA-MTMM models whenever possible.

The Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire: An examination of factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity using multitrait-multirater data.

This study examined the factorial, convergent, and discriminant validity of scores on the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), a tool for screening children's psychological adjustment. Data were collected from a community sample of 346 children (46% girls, M age = 54.07 months), using teacher, mother, and father reports. Results from confirmatory factor analyses indicated that the SDQ's hypothesized 5-factor structure fit the data well and partial strict measurement invariance was established across raters. Using teachers' reports as reference method, a correlated trait-correlated method minus 1 model (Eid et al., 2008) was fitted to investigate convergent and discriminant validity. The convergent validity of parents' ratings relative to teachers' ratings was modest. Mothers and fathers had a unique perspective on children's behavior above and beyond their partial overlap with teacher reports. Results indicated good discriminant validity between most of the traits measured by the SDQ. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Correction to: Promises and Pitfalls of Latent Variable Approaches to Understanding Psychopathology: Reply to Burke and Johnston, Eid, Junghänel and Colleagues, and Willoughby.

The original version of this article unfortunately contained a mistake. The supplementary material was not captured to our commentary article.

Promises and Pitfalls of Latent Variable Approaches to Understanding Psychopathology: Reply to Burke and Johnston, Eid, Junghänel and Colleagues, and Willoughby.

The commentaries by Burke and Johnston (this issue), Eid (this issue), Junghänel et al. (this issue), and Willoughby (this issue) on Burns et al. (this issue) provide useful context for comparing three latent variable modeling approaches to understanding psychopathology-the correlated first-order syndrome-specific factors model, the bifactor S - 1 model, and the symmetrical bifactor model. The correlated first-order syndrome-specific factors model has proven useful in constructing explanatory models of psychopathology. The bifactor S - 1 model is also useful for examining the latent structure of psychopathology, especially in contexts with clear theoretical predictions. Joint use of correlated first-order syndrome-specific model and bifactor S - 1 model provides leverage for explaining psychopathology, and both models can also guide individual clinical assessment. In this reply, we further clarify reasons why the symmetrical bifactor model should not be used to study the latent structure of psychopathology and also discuss a restricted bifactor S - 1 model that is equivalent to the first-order syndrome-specific factors model.

Are Sluggish Cognitive Tempo, ADHD, and Oppositional Defiant Disorder Trait- or State-Like Constructs from Prekindergarten to Fourth Grade?

The objective was to determine the proportion of trait (consistency across occasions) and occasion-specific variance in sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT), attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)-inattention (IN), ADHD-hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI), and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptom ratings. A single trait factor-multiple state factors model was applied to parent ratings of SCT, ADHD-IN, ADHD-HI, and ODD symptoms for 978 children (50% female) across prekindergarten (M = 4.90 years), kindergarten (M = 6.27 years), 1st-grade (M = 7.42 years), 2nd-grade (M = 8.45 years), and 4th-grade (M = 10.45 years) assessments. For the prekindergarten assessment, SCT, ADHD-IN, ADHD-HI, and ODD contained more occasion-specific than trait variance (54%, 64%, 56%, and 55% occasion-specific variance, respectively). In contrast, SCT, ADHD-IN, ADHD-HI, and ODD contained more trait than occasion-specific variance for the kindergarten through 4th-grade assessments (62%-72%, 65%-68%, 71%-75%, and 60%-69% trait variance, respectively). SCT, ADHD-IN, ADHD-HI, and ODD are slightly to moderately more state-like than trait-like during the prekindergarten developmental period but are more stable traits than fluctuating states from kindergarten to 4th grade. Findings indicate that, particularly after children start formal schooling, these psychopathology dimensions are primarily stable traits; implications for assessment are discussed.

Application of the Bifactor S - 1 Model to Multisource Ratings of ADHD/ODD Symptoms: an Appropriate Bifactor Model for Symptom Ratings.

The symmetrical bifactor model is often applied to attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)-hyperactive/impulsive (HI), ADHD-inattentive (IN), and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) symptoms, but this model frequently yields anomalous or inadmissible results. An alternative model, the bifactor S - 1 model, is more appropriate for examining the hierarchical structure of ADHD/ODD symptoms. Both models were applied to ADHD-HI, ADHD-IN, and ODD symptom ratings by mothers, fathers, and teachers for 2142 Spanish children (49.49% girls; ages 8-13 years). The symmetrical bifactor model yielded the typical anomalous loadings, with a weakly defined ADHD-HI specific factor and difficult to interpret associations of general and specific factors with correlates. In contrast, the bifactor S - 1 model with ADHD-HI symptoms as general reference factor produced clearly interpretable results. For mothers and fathers, slightly more than 50% of true score variance in ADHD-IN and ODD symptoms represented specific residual variance not shared with the general ADHD-HI reference factor. For teachers, approximately 69% and 39% of true score variance in ADHD-IN and ODD symptoms, respectively, represented specific residual variance not shared with the general ADHD-HI reference factor. The general ADHD-HI reference factor and specific ADHD-IN and ODD residual factors showed convergent and discriminant validity across sources, along with unique associations with peer rejection, social impairment, and academic impairment factors. The bifactor S - 1 model also yielded results consistent with predictions from trait-impulsivity theory of ADHD/ODD development. Researchers should use the bifactor S - 1 model rather than the symmetrical bifactor model if hypotheses involve the latent hierarchical structure of ADHD/ODD symptoms.

The importance of face-to-face contact and reciprocal relationships and their associations with depressive symptoms and life satisfaction.

OBJECTIVE: The current study aimed to examine how patterns of interpersonal relational contexts (e.g., face-to-face or technology-based) and processes (e.g., initiated or accepted) relate to depressive symptomology and life satisfaction. METHODS: Participants were recruited through Amazon's Mechanical Turk (n = 962 adults [52.1% female; aged 18-78; 16.4% Non-White]). Quota sampling was used to closely match the sample demographics to that of the United States Census data. Latent class analyses (LCA) identified classes of interpersonal relations using the Multidimensional Interpersonal Relations Scale. Next, participants' responses on the Beck Depression Inventory and Satisfaction With Life Scale were examined to evaluate differences in depressive symptoms and life satisfaction across classes. RESULTS: LCA results supported a 4-class model, in which classes were characterized by patterns of relational contexts and processes: Class 1 (50.6%) engagement across all contexts (e.g., face-to-face) and processes (e.g., initiated); Class 2 (12.7%) engagement across all contexts and processes except Facebook; Class 3 (24.0%) engagement in all contexts and only passive processes; and Class 4 (12.7%) engagement in only technology-based contexts and passive processes. Membership in Classes 1 and 2 was associated with lower depressive symptomology and higher life satisfaction as compared to Classes 3 and 4. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that patterns of relations differentially relate to depressive symptoms and life satisfaction. The findings suggest that multicontextual (e.g., face-to-face and technology-based) and reciprocal relationships with friends (e.g., initiating and accepting connections) may play an important role in the association between interpersonal relations with life satisfaction and depressive symptoms.

Depression and PTSD-related anhedonia mediate the association of military sexual trauma and suicidal ideation in female service members/veterans.

Previous research shows a direct link between military sexual trauma and suicide risk. Little is known about mediators of this association, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) or depression severity, mental health conditions that are correlated with both suicide risk and military sexual trauma. Moreover, existing studies of military sexual trauma do not distinguish between harassment and assault, resulting in a gap in our knowledge regarding suicide risk as a function of sexual trauma type. We explored whether PTSD symptom clusters and depression mediated the association of military sexual trauma type (none, harassment-only, assault) and suicidal ideation (SI). Female service members/Veterans (n = 1190) completed a demographic inventory, military sexual trauma history and type screening, and PTSD symptom cluster severity, depression severity, and SI measures. Structural equation modeling revealed that the association of military sexual trauma, particularly assault, with SI was mediated by depression severity and PTSD-related anhedonia. Screening for SI among those endorsing a history of military sexual trauma, PTSD-related anhedonia, and depression may help identify those at risk for SI. Therapeutic interventions aimed at reducing PTSD-related anhedonia and depression symptoms may be the most efficient way to mitigate suicide risk in those with histories of assault military sexual trauma.

Examining Quadratic Relationships Between Traits and Methods in Two Multitrait-Multimethod Models.

Multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) analysis is one of the most frequently employed methods to examine the validity of psychological measures. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is a commonly used analytic tool for examining MTMM data through the specification of trait and method latent variables. Most contemporary CFA-MTMM models either do not allow estimating correlations between the trait and method factors or they are restricted to linear trait-method relationships. There is no theoretical reason why trait and method relationships should always be linear, and quadratic relationships are frequently proposed in the social sciences. In this article, we present two approaches for examining quadratic relations between traits and methods through extended latent difference and latent means CFA-MTMM models (Pohl et al., 2008; Pohl and Steyer, 2010). An application of the new approaches to a multi-rater study of the nine inattention symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children (N = 752) and the results of a Monte Carlo study to test the applicability of the models under a variety of data conditions are described.

How Consistent Is Sluggish Cognitive Tempo Across Occasions, Sources, and Settings? Evidence From Latent State-Trait Modeling.

Research has yet to determine how much of the variance in sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) symptom ratings is consistent across occasions, sources, and settings versus specific to occasion, source, and setting. Our first objective was to determine the amount of variance in SCT ratings that was consistent ( trait consistency) across three occasions of measurement over 12 months versus specific to the occasion ( occasion-specificity) with ratings by mothers, fathers, primary teachers, and secondary teachers of 811 Spanish children. Our second objective was then to determine the convergent validity for trait consistency and occasion-specificity variance components within and across settings. SCT ratings reflected mostly trait consistency for mothers, fathers, and primary teachers (less so for secondary teachers) with the convergent validity for trait consistency also being strong for mothers with fathers and for primary teachers with secondary teachers. Across home and school, however, convergent validity for trait consistency was low and even lower for occasion-specificity. SCT appears to be more trait-like rather than state-like, with similar levels of trait consistency across occasions and convergent validity within settings as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms in a prior study. However, SCT symptoms had slightly weaker convergent validity for trait consistency across settings relative to ADHD symptoms.

Consistency of Limited Prosocial Emotions Across Occasions, Sources, and Settings: Trait- or State-Like Construct in a Young Community Sample?

Limited prosocial emotions (LPE, also referred to as callous-unemotional [CU] traits) are considered to reflect a more trait- than state-like construct. Our first objective was to determine the amount true score variance in CU/LPE that was consistent (trait consistency) over two occasions (12-month interval) of measurement versus specific (occasion-specificity) to each occasion. Our second objective was to determine the convergent validity of the consistent (trait) and occasion-specific (state) variance in CU/LPE symptom ratings within and across settings. Mothers, fathers, primary teachers, and ancillary teachers rated the CU/LPE symptoms in sample of 811 Spanish children (55% boys) on two occasions (i.e., end of first and second grades). CU/LPE symptom ratings showed more trait consistency than occasion-specificity for mothers and fathers, slightly more occasion-specificity than trait consistency for primary teachers, and much more occasion-specificity than trait consistency for ancillary teachers. Convergent validity for trait consistency was strong for fathers with mothers but weaker for primary with ancillary teachers. There was essentially no convergent validity for either trait consistency or occasion-specificity across home and school settings. CU/LPE symptom ratings within this age range represented a more trait-like construct for mothers and fathers and more state-like construct for primary teachers and ancillary teachers. In contrast, earlier studies showed ADHD and ODD ratings to be trait-like within and across home and school. The study of CU/LPE in young children should therefore include multiple sources in multiple settings across occasions to better understand the consistent and occasion-specific nature of the CU/LPE construct.

A latent state-trait model for analyzing states, traits, situations, method effects, and their interactions.

OBJECTIVE: Studies on situation and Person × Situation interaction effects often use only one method of measurement, so that the extent to which the effects may be method-specific cannot be determined. We introduce a new multimethod latent state-trait model for random and fixed situations (MM-LST-RF), which allows examining person, situation, and Person × Situation interaction effects in the context of multimethod measurement designs (e.g., studies with multiple reporters), and discuss potential areas of application for the new model in personality research. METHOD: The new model allows analyzing novel features of multimethod, multi-situation data, including (a) the convergent validity and method specificity of trait (person) effects, situation effects, and Person × Situation interaction effects; (b) the degree of situation specificity of method effects; and (c) potential Method × Situation interactions. An application to smoker's affect (N = 235; 57% female; 93% Caucasian) before and after quitting smoking is presented with positively and negatively worded items as methods. RESULTS: The MM-LST-RF model fit the smoking data well. Method specificity of many effects was high. CONCLUSIONS: The MM-LST-RF model provides researchers with a new framework for testing method specificity of person, situation, and interaction effects.

Specific PTSD symptom clusters mediate the association of military sexual trauma severity and sexual function and satisfaction in female service members/veterans.

BACKGROUND: Sexual satisfaction and function are vastly understudied in female service members/veterans (SM/Vs). Military sexual trauma (MST) is associated with poorer sexual satisfaction and function, but the mechanism through which MST relates to sexual satisfaction and function is unknown. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is one of the most frequent diagnoses following MST, and those with poorer sexual satisfaction and function experience higher PTSD symptoms, particularly numbing and anhedonia symptom clusters. In this study, we examined which symptom clusters (re-experiencing, avoidance, negative alterations in cognition and mood [NACM], anhedonia, dysphoric and anxious arousal) mediated the relationship between MST and sexual satisfaction and function. METHOD: Female SM/Vs (N = 1,189) completed self-report measures of MST severity (none, harassment only, assault), PTSD, sexual satisfaction, and sexual function, as well as a demographic inventory. RESULTS: Anhedonia and dysphoric arousal fully mediated the association between assault MST and sexual satisfaction and function. NACM fully mediated the association between harassment and assault MST and sexual satisfaction. Finally, dysphoric arousal significantly mediated the association of harassment MST with sexual satisfaction and function. LIMITATIONS: Data was cross-sectional and based on self-report. CONCLUSIONS: The relationship between MST and sexual satisfaction and function may be mediated through specific PTSD symptom clusters. As there are no evidenced-based treatments to improve sexual satisfaction and function in female SM/Vs, additional research is needed to develop and pilot interventions. Among those with a history of MST, targeting NACM, anhedonia, and dysphoric arousal may be most effective in addressing sexual concerns.

Trait and State Variance in Multi-Informant Assessments of ADHD and Academic Impairment in Spanish First-Grade Children.

OBJECTIVE: We examined the stable trait and variable state components of ADHD-inattention (IN), ADHD-hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI), and academic impairment (AI) dimensions using mothers', fathers', primary and secondary teachers' ratings of children's behavior at home and school. We also examined between-informant agreement with regard to trait and state components. METHOD: Mothers, fathers, primary and secondary teachers rated HI, IN, and AI in N = 758 Spanish first grade children (55% boys) over three measurement occasions across 12 months. RESULTS: Latent state-trait analyses revealed that mothers', fathers', and primary teachers' (but not secondary teachers') ratings reflected more trait variance for ADHD-HI (M = 73%), ADHD-IN (M = 74%), and AI (M = 76%) than occasion-specific variance (M = 27%, M = 26%, and M = 24%, respectively). Fathers' ratings shared a meaningful level of trait variance with mothers' ratings of ADHD-HI and ADHD-IN (range 78% to 82%), whereas primary and secondary teachers' ratings shared lower levels of trait variance with mothers' ratings (range 41% to 63%). The trait components of fathers', primary teachers', and secondary teachers' ratings of AI showed high levels of convergence with mothers' ratings (88%, 70%, and 59% respectively). CONCLUSIONS: ADHD symptom reports reflect both trait (48 to 86%) and state (14 to 53%) variance components. The lower amount of shared variability between home and school suggests the setting-specificity of trait and state components of ADHD symptoms. Our findings indicate that ADHD symptom reports may reflect context-specific traits, suggesting the importance of differentiating and targeting ADHD behaviors across different settings.

A Multimethod Latent State-Trait Model for Structurally Different And Interchangeable Methods.

A new multiple indicator multilevel latent state-trait (LST) model for the analysis of multitrait-multimethod-multioccasion (MTMM-MO) data is proposed. The LST-COM model combines current CFA-MTMM modeling approaches of interchangeable and structurally different methods and LST modeling approaches. The model enables researchers to specify construct and method factors on the level of time-stable (trait) as well as time-variable (occasion-specific) latent variables and analyze the convergent and discriminant validity among different rater groups across time. The statistical performance of the model is scrutinized by a simulation study and guidelines for empirical applications are provided.

Anomalous results in G-factor models: Explanations and alternatives.

G-factor models such as the bifactor model and the hierarchical G-factor model are increasingly applied in psychology. Many applications of these models have produced anomalous and unexpected results that are often not in line with the theoretical assumptions on which these applications are based. Examples of such anomalous results are vanishing specific factors and irregular loading patterns. In this article, the authors show that from the perspective of stochastic measurement theory anomalous results have to be expected when G-factor models are applied to a single-level (rather than a 2-level) sampling process. The authors argue that the application of the bifactor model and related models require a 2-level sampling process that is usually not present in empirical studies. We demonstrate how alternative models with a G-factor and specific factors can be derived that are more well-defined for the actual single-level sampling design that underlies most empirical studies. It is shown in detail how 2 alternative models, the bifactor-(S - 1) model and the bifactor-(S·I - 1) model, can be defined. The properties of these models are described and illustrated with an empirical example. Finally, further alternatives for analyzing multidimensional models are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record