Differences in Health Care Utilization for Asthma by Children with Medicaid versus Private Insurance.

Asthma is the most common chronic disease in children, disproportionately affects families with lower incomes, and is a leading reason for acute care visits and hospitalizations. This retrospective cohort study used the Massachusetts All Payer Claims Database (2014-2018) to examine differences in acute care utilization and quality of care for asthma between Medicaid- and privately insured children in Massachusetts. Outcomes included acute care use (emergency department [ED] or hospitalization), ED visits with asthma, routine asthma visits, and filled prescriptions for asthma medications. Multivariable logistic regression was used to account for differences in demographics, ZIP codes, health status, and asthma severity. Overall, 10.0% of Medicaid-insured children and 5.6% of privately insured were classified as having asthma. Among 317,596 child-year observations for children with asthma, 64.4% were insured by Medicaid. Medicaid-insured children had higher rates of any acute care use (50.4% vs. 30.0%) and ED visits with an asthma diagnosis (27.2% vs. 13.3%) compared to privately insured children. Only 65.4% of Medicaid enrollees had at least one routine asthma visit compared to 74.3% of privately insured children. Most children received at least one asthma medication (88.6% Medicaid vs. 83.3% privately insured), but a higher percentage of Medicaid-insured children received at least one rescue medication (84.0% vs. 73.7%), and a lower percentage of Medicaid-insured (46.1% vs. 49.2%) received a controller medication. These results suggest that opportunities for improvement in childhood asthma persist, particularly for children insured by Medicaid.

Preventive Primary Care in the Postpartum Year: The Role of Medicaid Delivery System Reform.

INTRODUCTION: Preventive and primary care in the postpartum year is critical for future health and may be increased by primary care focused delivery system reform including implementation of Medicaid Accountable Care Organizations (ACO). This study examined associations of Massachusetts Medicaid ACO implementation with preventive visits in the postpartum year. METHODS: The Massachusetts All-Payer Claims Database was used to identify births to privately-insured or Medicaid ACO-eligible individuals from January 1, 2016 to February 28, 2019. Comparing these groups before and after implementation, a propensity score weighted difference-in-difference design was used to analyze associations of Medicaid ACO implementation with any preventive care visit and any primary care physician (PCP) preventive visit within one year postpartum, controlling for other characteristics. Analyses were performed in 2023 and 2024. RESULTS: Of the 110,601 births in the study population, 35.5% had any preventive care visit and 23.0% had any preventive PCP visit in the year postpartum, with higher rates of preventive visits among privately-insured individuals. In adjusted difference-in-difference analyses, relative to the pre-period, there was a 2.7 percentage point (pp) decrease (95% confidence interval [CI]: -4.3pp, -1.2pp) and 3.5 pp decrease (95% CI: -4.9pp, -2.0pp) in use of any preventive visits and any PCP preventive visits, respectively, for Medicaid-insured versus privately-insured individuals after ACO implementation. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of Massachusetts Medicaid ACOs was associated with decreases in receipt of preventive visits and preventive PCP visits for Medicaid-insured individuals relative to privately-insured individuals. Medicaid ACOs should consider potential implications of primary care access in the postpartum year for health across the lifecourse.

Transitions in health insurance among continuously insured patients with schizophrenia.

Changes in health insurance coverage may disrupt access to and continuity of care, even for those who remain insured. Continuity of care is especially important in schizophrenia, which requires ongoing medical and pharmaceutical treatment. However, little is known about continuity of insurance coverage among those with schizophrenia. The objective was to examine the probability of insurance transitions for individuals with schizophrenia who were continuously insured and whether this varied across insurance types. The Massachusetts All-Payer Claims Database identified individuals with schizophrenia aged 18-64 who were continuously insured during a two-year period between 2014 and 2018. A logistic regression estimated the association of having an insurance transition - defined as having a change in insurance type - with insurance type at the start of the period, adjusting for age, sex, ZIP code in the lowest quartile of median income, and ZIP code with concentrated poverty. Overall, 15.1% had at least one insurance transition across a 24-month period. Insurance transitions were most frequent among those with plans from the Marketplace. In regression adjusted results, individuals covered by the traditional Medicaid program were 20.2 percentage points [pp] (95% confidence interval [CI]: 24.6 pp, 15.9 pp) less likely to have an insurance transition than those who were insured by a Marketplace plan. Insurance transitions among individuals with schizophrenia were common, with more than one in six people having at least one transition in insurance type during a two-year period. Given that even continuously insured individuals with schizophrenia commonly experience insurance transitions, attention to insurance transitions as a barrier to care access and continuity is warranted.

Changes in dental visits and oral health for children by race and ethnicity during the COVID-19 pandemic.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic created new barriers to oral health care, which may worsen oral health and exacerbate disparities. The authors quantified changes in children's dental care receipt and oral health outcomes during the pandemic and examined differences among racial and ethnic groups. METHODS: Using the National Survey of Children's Health (163,948 child observations from 2017-2021), the authors used weighted modified Poisson models to examine caregiver-reported receipt of a dental visit (for any reason and for preventive care) and adverse oral health outcomes (teeth in fair or poor condition; difficulty with toothaches, cavities, or bleeding gums) from 2017 through 2019 (prepandemic) compared with 2020 and 2021. The authors examined outcomes within and across racial and ethnic groups. RESULTS: Children from all racial and ethnic groups experienced declines in receipt of dental visits, but there were limited changes in adverse oral health outcomes during 2020 and 2021. Prepandemic disparities in receipt of dental visits persisted for Black children and Asian children compared with White children. Hispanic children experienced larger increases in risk of experiencing both adverse oral health outcomes compared with White children in 2020 and in having teeth in fair or poor condition in 2021. CONCLUSIONS: The pandemic did not create new disparities in receipt of dental visits or oral health outcomes, but disparities in care persisted, and the oral health of Hispanic children was affected differentially. PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: Continued monitoring of dental visits and adverse oral health outcomes by race and ethnicity is critical to ensuring all children have access to oral health care. This information can help develop targeted interventions to improve children's oral health, including for minoritized racial and ethnic groups.

Association of Postpartum Mental Illness Diagnoses with Severe Maternal Morbidity.

Background: This study aimed to determine whether birthing people who experience severe maternal morbidity (SMM) are more likely to be diagnosed with a postpartum mental illness. Materials and Methods: Using the Massachusetts All Payer Claims Database, this study used modified Poisson regression analysis to assess the association of SMM with mental illness diagnosis during the postpartum year, accounting for prenatal mental illness diagnoses and other patient characteristics. Results: There were 128,161 deliveries identified, with 55.0% covered by Medicaid. Of these, 3.1% experienced SMM during pregnancy and/or delivery hospitalization, and 20.1% had a mental illness diagnosis within 1 year postpartum. In adjusted regression analyses, individuals with SMM had a 10.6% increased risk of having any mental illness diagnosis compared to individuals without SMM, primarily due to an increased risk of a depression or post-traumatic stress disorder diagnosis among people with SMM than those without SMM. Conclusions: Individuals who experienced SMM had a higher risk of a mental illness diagnosis in the postpartum year. Given increases in SMM in the United States in recent decades, policies to mitigate mental health sequelae of SMM are urgently needed.

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act and Pediatric Medical Clinicians' Application of Fluoride Varnish.

Importance: Fluoride varnish reduces children's tooth decay, yet few clinicians provide it. Most state Medicaid programs have covered this service during medical visits for children aged 1 to 5 years, but private insurers began covering it only in 2015 due to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA) mandate that they cover a set of recommended preventive services without cost-sharing. Evidence on clinicians' behavior change postmandate is limited. Objective: To examine monthly changes in fluoride varnish applications among pediatric clinicians following the ACA mandate. Design, Setting, and Participants: Using all-payer claims data from Massachusetts, this cohort study applied an interrupted time-series approach with linear regression models comparing changes in monthly clinician-level outcomes before and after the mandate. Participants included clinicians who billed at least 5 well-child visits for patients aged 1 to 5 years and were observed at least once premandate. Adjusted for clinician fixed effects, models were assessed overall and separately for clinicians categorized by their monthly share of well-child visits paid by private insurers before the mandate: mostly private (>66% of visits paid by private insurers), mostly public (<33% of visits paid by private insurers), or mixed (33%-66% of visits paid by private insurers) insurance types. Analysis was performed from June 1, 2022, to July 31, 2023. Exposure: Preenactment and postenactment of the ACA mandate for private insurers to cover fluoride varnish applications without cost-sharing. Main Outcomes and Measures: Clinician-month measures of whether fluoride varnish was provided during at least 1 well-child visit and the share of such visits, analyzed separately for clinicians who did and did not apply fluoride varnish premandate. Results: The sample included 2405 clinicians, with 107 841 clinician-months. Premandate, 10.48% of the visits included fluoride varnish applications. Two years postmandate, the likelihood of ever applying fluoride varnish was 13.64 (95% CI, 10.97-16.32) percentage points higher. For clinicians providing fluoride varnish premandate, the share of visits with fluoride varnish increased by 9.22 (95% CI, 5.41-13.02) percentage points. This increase was observed in clinicians who treated children with insurance that was mostly mixed and mostly private; no substantial change was observed among those treating children with mostly public insurance. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study of pediatric primary care clinicians, an association between the ACA mandate and an increase in fluoride varnish application was observed, especially among clinicians primarily treating privately insured patients and those applying it premandate. However, application remains infrequent, suggesting persistent barriers.

Barriers and Facilitators to Optimal Fluoride Varnish Application.

OBJECTIVE: National guidelines recommend that all children under age six receive fluoride varnish (FV) in medical settings. However, application rates remain low. This study aimed to update understanding of barriers and facilitators to guideline concordant FV application. METHODS: We conducted virtual semi-structured interviews with a purposive sample (eg, FV application rates, geographic location, practice size and type) of pediatric primary care clinicians and medical assistants in Massachusetts between February 1 and June 30, 2022. The Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) served as the study's theoretical framework and data were analyzed using a modified grounded theory approach. RESULTS: Of the 31 participants, 90% identified as White and 81% as female. Major themes, which linked to four CFIR domains, included: variation in perceived adequacy of reimbursement; differences in FV application across practice types; variation in processes, protocols, and priorities; external accountability for quality of care; and potential levers for change. Important subthemes included challenges for small practices; role of quality measures in delivering guideline-concordant preventive oral health care; and desire for preventive care coordination with dentists. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that potential barriers and facilitators to guideline concordant FV application exist at multiple levels that may warrant further study. Examples include testing the effectiveness of quality measures for FV application and testing strategies for implementing consistent processes and protocols for improving FV application rates.

Maternal Health Equity in Medicaid Accountable Care Organizations: Early Lessons from the Massachusetts Experience.

There are substantial inequities by race and ethnicity in maternal health care utilization and health outcomes across the perinatal period. As Medicaid covers 42% of births nationally and almost two-thirds of births to Black birthing people, state Medicaid financing and delivery system reforms have substantial scope to impact these inequities. Twenty-one states have implemented Medicaid Accountable Care Organizations (ACOs) at some point since 2015. Using public documents and interviews with ACO administrators, we examine the implications of Massachusetts Medicaid ACOs, implemented in March 2018, for maternal health equity. Although these Medicaid ACOs have the potential to impact maternal health equity, they face many challenges in doing so. We review future steps within Massachusetts Medicaid ACOs and Medicaid programs more generally to incorporate policies that may better address racial and ethnic inequities.

Association Between Insurance Type and Fluoride Varnish Application During Well-Child Visits in Massachusetts.

OBJECTIVE: To compare rates of fluoride varnish (FV) applications during well-child visits for children covered by Medicaid and private medical insurance in Massachusetts. METHODS: This cross-sectional study analyzed well-child visits for children aged 1 to 5 years paid by Medicaid and private insurance during 2016.Çô18 in Massachusetts. Multivariate regression models, with all covariates interacting with insurance type, were used to calculate odds ratios and adjusted predicted probabilities of fluoride varnish during well-child visits by calendar year and age. RESULTS: Across 957,551 well-child visits, 40.0% were paid by private insurers. Unadjusted rates of fluoride varnish were significantly lower among well-child visits paid by private insurers (6.6%) than visits paid by Medicaid (14.2%). In the fully interacted regression model, the odds of a visit including fluoride varnish were significantly lower for older children than for children aged 1 for visits paid by both insurance types. Adjusted rates of fluoride varnish increased significantly from 2016 to 2018 for both insurance types. Moreover, rates were higher among visits for children covered under Medicaid than privately insured children in all years, and the differences by insurance type declined over time (2016: 8.0% points, 95% confidence interval.á=.á.êÆ8.7 to .êÆ7.3, 2018: 5.3% points, 95% confidence interval.á=.á.êÆ6.6 to .êÆ3.9). CONCLUSIONS: Rates of fluoride varnish applications during well-child visits were low for both Medicaid and private insurance despite growth from 2016 to 2018 in Massachusetts. Low rates are concerning because this is a recommended service with the potential to help address racial, geographic, and income-based disparities in access and oral health outcomes.

Influenza Vaccinations Among Privately and Publicly Insured Children With Asthma.

OBJECTIVE: Annual influenza vaccination rates for children remain well below the Healthy People 2030 target of 70%. We aimed to compare influenza vaccination rates for children with asthma by insurance type and to identify associated factors. METHODS: This cross-sectional study examined influenza vaccination rates for children with asthma by insurance type, age, year, and disease status using the Massachusetts All Payer Claims Database (2014-2018). We used multivariable logistic regression to estimate the probability of vaccination accounting for child and insurance characteristics. RESULTS: The sample included 317,596 child-year observations for children with asthma in 2015-18. Fewer than half of children with asthma received influenza vaccinations; 51.3% among privately insured and 45.1% among Medicaid insured. Risk modeling reduced, but did not eliminate, this gap; privately insured children were 3.7 percentage points (pp) more likely to receive an influenza vaccination than Medicaid-insured children (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2.9-4.5pp). Risk modeling also found persistent asthma was associated with more vaccinations (6.7pp higher; 95% CI: 6.2-7.2pp), as was younger age. The regression-adjusted probability of influenza vaccination in a non-office setting was 3.2pp higher in 2018 than 2015 (95% CI: 2.2-4.2pp), and significantly lower for children with Medicaid. CONCLUSIONS: Despite clear recommendations for annual influenza vaccinations for children with asthma, low rates persist, particularly for children with Medicaid. Offering vaccines in non-office settings such as retail pharmacies may reduce barriers, but we did not observe increased vaccination rates in the first years after this policy change.

Maternity care clinician inclusion in Medicaid Accountable Care Organizations.

BACKGROUND: Medicaid Accountable Care Organizations (ACO) are increasingly common, but the network breadth for maternity care is not well described. The inclusion of maternity care clinicians in Medicaid ACOs has significant implications for access to care for pregnant people, who are disproportionately insured by Medicaid. PURPOSE: To address this, we evaluate obstetrician-gynecologists (OB/GYN), maternal-fetal medicine specialists (MFM), certified nurse midwives (CNM), and acute care hospital inclusion in Massachusetts Medicaid ACOs. METHODOLOGY/APPROACH: Using publicly available provider directories for Massachusetts Medicaid ACOs (n = 16) from December 2020 -January 2021, we quantify obstetrician-gynecologists, maternal-fetal medicine specialists, CNMs, and acute care hospital with obstetric department inclusion in each Medicaid ACO. We compare maternity care provider and acute care hospital inclusion across and within ACO type. For Accountable Care Partnership Plans, we compare maternity care clinician and acute care hospital inclusion to ACO enrollment. RESULTS: Primary Care ACO plans include 1185 OB/GYNs, 51 MFMs, and 100% of Massachusetts acute care hospitals, but CNMs were not easily identifiable in the directories. Across Accountable Care Partnership Plans, a mean of 305 OB/GYNs (median: 97; range: 15-812), 15 MFMs (Median: 8; range: 0-50), 85 CNMs (median: 29; range: 0-197), and half of Massachusetts acute care hospitals (median: 23.81%; range: 10%-100%) were included. CONCLUSION AND PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Substantial differences exist in maternity care clinician inclusion across and within ACO types. Characterizing the quality of included maternity care clinicians and hospitals across ACOs is an important target of future research. Highlighting maternal healthcare as a key area of focus for Medicaid ACOs-including equitable access to high-quality obstetric providers-will be important to improving maternal health outcomes.

Use of Big Data and Ethical Issues for Populations With Substance Use Disorder.

With expanding data availability and computing power, health research is increasingly relying on big data from a variety of sources. We describe a state-level effort to address aspects of the opioid epidemic through public health research, which has resulted in an expansive data resource combining dozens of administrative data sources in Massachusetts. The Massachusetts Public Health Data Warehouse is a public health innovation that serves as an example of how to address the complexities of balancing data privacy and access to data for public health and health services research. We discuss issues of data protection and data access, and provide recommendations for ethical data governance. Keeping these issues in mind, the use of this data resource has the potential to allow for transformative research on critical public health issues.

Differences in Insurance Coverage for Individuals With Schizophrenia After Implementation of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act.

This cross-sectional study uses Medical Expenditure Panel Survey data to assess differences in insurance coverage for individuals with schizophrenia before vs after implementation of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA).

Preventive care visits with OB/GYNs and generalist physicians among reproductive-age women with chronic conditions.

OBJECTIVE: To examine services delivered during preventive care visits among reproductive-age women with and without chronic conditions by physician specialty. DATA SOURCES: National Ambulatory Medical Care Surveys (2011-2018). STUDY DESIGN: We examined provision of specific services during preventive care visits by physician specialty among reproductive-age female patients, overall and among women with five common chronic conditions (diabetes, hypertension, depression, hyperlipidemia, and asthma). DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS: The sample included preventive visits to OB/GYNs or generalist physicians where the patient was female, age 18-44, and not pregnant. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: In OB/GYN preventive visits, reproductive health services were more likely to be provided, while non-reproductive health services were less likely to be provided, both among reproductive-age female patients overall and among those with chronic conditions. For example, pap tests were provided in 44.5% of OB/GYN preventive visits (95% CI: 40.6-48.4) and in 21.4% of generalist preventive visits (95% CI: 17.2-26.6). Lipid testing was provided in 2.8% of OB/GYN preventive visits (95% CI: 1.7-3.9) and in 30.3% of generalist preventive visits (95% CI: 26.1-34.6). CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the full range of care received in preventive visits across settings could guide recommendations to optimize where reproductive-age women with chronic conditions seek care.

Content Analysis of Patient-Facing Information Related to Preeclampsia.

BACKGROUND: Previous research has shown pregnant people are not knowledgeable about preeclampsia, a significant cause of maternal morbidity and mortality. This lack of knowledge may impact their ability to report symptoms, comply with recommendations, and receive appropriate follow-up care. Pregnant people commonly seek information from sources outside their treating clinician, including pregnancy-specific books and online sources. We examined commonly used preeclampsia information sources to evaluate whether pregnant people are receiving up-to-date, guideline-based information. METHODS: We conducted a content analysis of preeclampsia-related information in top-ranking websites and bestselling pregnancy books. We used American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists preeclampsia guidelines to construct a codebook, which we used to examine source content completeness and accuracy. For each source, we analyzed information about preeclampsia diagnosis, patient-reported symptoms, risk factors, prevention, treatment, and complications. RESULTS: Across 19 included sources (13 websites and 6 books), we found substantial variation in completeness and accuracy of preeclampsia information. We found high rates of mentions for preeclampsia symptoms. Risk factors were more commonly included in online sources than book sources. Most sources mentioned treatment options, including blood pressure medication and giving birth; however, one-third of online sources positively mentioned the nonrecommended treatment of bed rest. Prevention methods, including prenatal aspirin for high-risk pregnancies, and long-term complications of preeclampsia were infrequently mentioned. CONCLUSIONS: Varying rates of accuracy in patient-facing preeclampsia information mean there is substantial room for improvement in these sources. Ensuring pregnant people receive current guideline-based information is critical for improving outcomes and implementing shared decision-making.

Transitions in Health Insurance During the Perinatal Period Among Patients With Continuous Insurance Coverage.

Importance: Although health insurance continuity is important during the perinatal period to improve birth outcomes and reduce maternal morbidity and mortality, insurance disruptions are common. However, little is known about insurance transitions among insurance types for individuals who remained insured during the perinatal period. Objective: To examine insurance transitions for birthing individuals with continuous insurance, including those with Medicaid and Medicaid managed care coverage, before, during, and after pregnancy. Design, Setting, and Participants: This cohort study used January 1, 2014 to December 31, 2018 data from the Massachusetts All-Payer Claims Database. The sample included deliveries from January 1, 2015, to December 31, 2017, to birthing individuals aged 18 to 44 years old with continuous insurance for 12 months before and after delivery. Data were analyzed from November 9, 2021, to September 2, 2022. Exposure: Insurance type at delivery. Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was a binary indicator of any transition in insurance type from 12 months before and/or after delivery. The secondary outcomes were measures of any predelivery transition (12 months before delivery month) and any transition during the postpartum period (delivery month to 12 months post partum). Multivariate logit regression models were used to analyze the association of an insurance transition in the perinatal period with insurance type in the delivery month, controlling for age and socioeconomic status based on a 5-digit zip code. Results: The analytic sample included 97 335 deliveries (mean [SD] maternal age at delivery, 30.4 [5.5] years). Of these deliveries, 23.4% (22 794) were insured by Medicaid and 28.1% (27 347) by Medicaid managed care in the delivery month. A total of 37.1% of the sample (36 127) had at least 1 insurance transition during the 12 months before and/or after delivery. In regression-adjusted analyses, those individuals covered by Medicaid and Medicaid managed care at delivery were 47.0 (95% CI, 46.3-47.7) percentage points and 50.1 (95% CI, 49.4-50.8) percentage points, respectively, more likely to have an insurance transition than those covered by private insurance. Those covered by Marketplace plans at delivery had a 33.1% (95% CI, 31.4%-34.8%) regression-adjusted predicted probability of having a postpartum insurance transition. Conclusions and Relevance: Results of this study showed that insurance transitions during the perinatal period occurred for more than 1 in 3 birthing individuals with continuous insurance and were more common among those with Medicaid or Medicaid managed care at delivery. Further research is needed to examine the role of insurance transitions in health care use and outcomes during the perinatal period.

Team Relationships and Performance: Evidence from Healthcare Referral Networks.

We examine the teams that emerge when a primary care physician (PCP) refers patients to specialists. When PCPs concentrate their specialist referrals-for instance, by sending their cardiology patients to fewer distinct cardiologists-repeat interactions between PCPs and specialists are encouraged. Repeated interactions provide more opportunities and incentives to develop productive team relationships. Using data from the Massachusetts All Payer Claims Database, we construct a new measure of PCP team referral concentration and document that it varies widely across PCPs, even among PCPs in the same organization. Chronically ill patients treated by PCPs with a one standard deviation higher team referral concentration have 4% lower health care utilization on average, with no discernible reduction in quality. We corroborate this finding using a national sample of Medicare claims and show that it holds under various identification strategies that account for observed and unobserved patient and physician characteristics. The results suggest that repeated PCP-specialist interactions improve team performance.

The Massachusetts public health data warehouse and the opioid epidemic: A qualitative study of perceived strengths and limitations for advancing research.

Due to the opioid overdose epidemic, Massachusetts created a Public Health Data Warehouse, encompassing individually-linked administrative data on most of the population as provided by more than 20 systems. As others seek to assemble and mine big data on opioid use, there is a need to consider its research utility. To identify perceived strengths and limitations of administrative big data, we collected qualitative data in 2019 from 39 stakeholders with knowledge of the Massachusetts Public Health Data Warehouse. Perceived strengths included the ability to: (1) detect new and clinically significant relationships; (2) observe treatments and services across institutional boundaries, broadening understanding of risk and protective factors, treatment outcomes, and intervention effectiveness; (3) use geographic-specific lenses for community-level health; (4) conduct rigorous "real-world" research; and (5) generate impactful findings that legitimize the scope and impacts of the opioid epidemic and answer urgent questions. Limitations included: (1) oversimplified information and imprecise measures; (2) data access and analysis challenges; (3) static records and substantial lag times; and (4) blind spots that bias or confound results, mask upstream or root causes, and contribute to incomplete understanding. Using administrative big data to conduct research on the opioid epidemic offers advantages but also has limitations which, if unrecognized, may undermine its utility. Findings can help researchers to capitalize on the advantages of big data, and avoid inappropriate uses, and aid states that are assembling big data to guide public health practice and policy.

Variation in prices for an evidence-based pediatric preventive service.

OBJECTIVE: To examine variation in prices paid by private medical insurers for fluoride varnish applications in medical settings, a newly reimbursed service that few children receive. DATA SOURCES: Private-insurance medical claims from Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island (2016-2018). STUDY DESIGN: We examined prices paid for fluoride varnish by private insurers and compared these to prices paid by Medicaid. DATA COLLECTION/EXTRACTION METHODS: Private claims for fluoride varnish during medical visits for children aged 1-5 years. State Medicaid rates for fluoride varnish were obtained from the American Academy of Pediatrics. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Prices paid for fluoride varnish by private insurers varied within and across states, ranging from less than $5 to $50. Median prices closely followed Medicaid rates in three of the four states. In states covering a package of fluoride varnish plus additional preventive oral health services during medical visits, combined Medicaid rates were nearly double the median price paid by private insurers. CONCLUSIONS: Fluoride varnish is a recommended service, but few children receive it. Price variation may contribute to the low uptake of this service. Ensuring sufficient Medicaid and private insurance rates could increase fluoride varnish applications in medical settings and improve oral health.

Delivery of fluoride varnish during pediatric medical visits by rurality.

OBJECTIVES: To examine variation in the delivery of fluoride varnish during pediatric medical visits by rurality. METHODS: This observational study used private health insurance claims (2016-2018) for children aged 1-5 years from Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island linked to the county-level Rural-Urban Continuum codes. County-level Rural-Urban Continuum codes were categorized into three groups: metropolitan, rural, and remote rural. Logistic regression models were used to estimate the odds of a well-child medical visit including fluoride varnish by county rurality, adjusting for other individual and county characteristics. RESULTS: Among 328,661 pediatric well-child visits paid by private insurance, fluoride varnish was included in 4.3% of visits in metropolitan counties, 6.2% of visits in rural counties, and 10.3% of visits in remote rural counties. There were significantly higher odds of a visit including fluoride varnish in rural remote counties (odds ratio [OR] = 3.5, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 2.3-5.3, p < 0.001) and in rural counties (OR = 2.4, 95% CI = 1.4-4.0, p < 0.001) compared to metropolitan counties. Rates of fluoride varnish during well-child visits increased since 2016 in metropolitan counties and remained stable in rural counties. CONCLUSIONS: All young children are recommended to receive fluoride varnish applications in medical settings, yet overall rates were low. For privately insured young children, pediatric well-child medical visits were more likely to include fluoride varnish in rural and rural remote counties than metropolitan counties.