Effects of a single transdermal administration of flunixin meglumine in early postpartum Holstein Friesian dairy cows: Part 1. Inflammatory and metabolic markers, uterine health, and indicators of pain.

The objectives of this study were to assess the effects of a single transdermal administration of flunixin meglumine (FM) in early postpartum Holstein Friesian dairy cows on serum concentrations of inflammatory and metabolic markers, uterine health, and indicators of pain. The hypothesis was that the anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, and analgetic effects of the pharmaceutic agent would reduce systemic inflammation, resulting in improved metabolic and inflammatory profile, diminished incidence of metritis, and reduced expression of pain. A total of 500 cows (153 primiparous, 347 multiparous) from 3 different commercial dairy farms in the northeast of Germany were included in a randomized controlled clinical trial. Farms were preselected based on high haptoglobin concentrations in their fresh lactating cows. Cows were excluded if they had experienced dystocia, stillbirth, or twin birth, or if they showed any signs of milk fever, retained fetal membranes, or fever (>40°C). The cows were treated once with either FM (3.33 mg/kg) or a placebo as control (CON) through transdermal administration between 24 to 36 h postpartum (d 2). General health examinations were performed (daily from d 2-8 and additionally on d 15 postpartum), vaginal discharge was assessed using the Metricheck device (d 8 and 15 postpartum) and serum samples were analyzed for inflammatory and metabolic markers (d 2, 4, and 6 postpartum). Effects of treatment, parity, sampling day, and their interactions were evaluated using mixed effects models. Primiparous cows treated with FM showed lower serum haptoglobin concentrations (0.90 ± 0.08 vs. 1.17 ± 0.07 g/L; ± standard error of the mean) and higher serum albumin concentrations (35.5 ± 0.31 vs. 34.8 ± 0.31 g/L) on d 6 postpartum. They also had a lower risk for purulent vaginal discharge with or without a fever compared with CON cows on d 15 postpartum (odds ratio for CON vs. FM: 1.63, 95% CI: 1.26-2.00), and body temperature was lower throughout the first 15 d in milk (39.1 ± 0.11 vs. 39.2 ± 0.11°C). Multiparous cows treated with FM had lower serum ß-hydroxybutyrate concentrations on d 4 postpartum (0.71 ± 0.05 vs. 0.78 ± 0.05 mmol/L) and d 6 postpartum (0.74 ± 0.05 vs. 0.80 ± 0.05 mmol/L). Regardless of parity, FM-treated cows were significantly less likely to abduct their tail from their body (14.3 vs. 23.6%) and show an arched back (27.9 vs. 39.7%) on the day after treatment compared with CON cows. It can be concluded that FM treatment slightly reduced inflammation and diminished the risk for metritis in primiparous cows, improved metabolic profile in multiparous cows, and reduced expressions of pain in all cows.

Effects of a single transdermal administration of flunixin meglumine in early postpartum Holstein Friesian dairy cows: Part 2. Milk yield, culling risk, and reproductive performance.

This study was conducted to assess the effects of a single transdermal administration of flunixin meglumine (FM) in early postpartum Holstein Friesian dairy cows on milk yield, culling risk, and reproductive performance. We hypothesized that FM treatment would reduce systemic inflammation, leading to higher milk yield, reduced culling risk, and better reproductive performance in the subsequent lactation. Holstein Friesian dairy cows [n = 500, 153 primiparous (PRIM), 347 multiparous (MULT)] from 3 farms in northeast Germany were enrolled in a prospective, randomized controlled clinical trial. Farms at risk for cows with excessive postpartum inflammation were identified in a preliminary trial by measuring serum haptoglobin concentrations in their fresh lactating cows. Only cows that had a eutocic birth and delivered a singleton calf alive, with no signs of milk fever or retained fetal membranes and rectal temperature ≤40°C at first clinical examination, were included within 24 to 36 h postpartum. Treatment included a single transdermal administration of either FM (3.33 mg/kg) or a placebo as control (CON). Milk production, milk solids, urea, and somatic cell count were recorded monthly for 8 mo after calving. Culling risk, first-service conception risk, and days open were retrieved from the farms' herd management software. Separate models for PRIM and MULT cows were built for most parameters because of significant effects of parity and parity × treatment interaction. Energy-corrected milk yield from 8 monthly Dairy Herd Improvement-equivalent tests was slightly greater in PRIM cows treated with FM (29.51 and 30.73 ± 1.35 kg, CON vs. FM), whereas it was reduced in treated MULT cows (38.23 and 37.47 ± 1.17 kg, CON vs. FM) compared with CON. Milk fat and protein yields were greater in FM-treated PRIM cows and lower in treated MULT cows compared with CON. Milk urea and somatic cell count were not affected by treatment. No differences in culling risk, first-service conception risk, or days open were observed. We conclude that a single transdermal administration of FM in early postpartum dairy cows on farms at risk for excessive postpartum inflammation slightly increased milk, milk fat, and milk protein yields in PRIM cows and decreased these variables in MULT cows. Neither culling risk nor fertility was affected by treatment in this study.

Application of a bacteriological on-farm test to reduce antimicrobial usage in dairy cows with purulent vaginal discharge.

The objective of this study was to assess the effect of a selective antibiotic treatment strategy based on a quick bacteriological on-farm test (Petrifilm, 3M Corp., St. Paul, MN) compared with the conventional antibiotic treatment of all cows having clinical endometritis (CE) defined by the presence of purulent vaginal discharge on both clinical cure rate and reproductive performance. The study was simultaneously conducted with dairy cows reared under a highly supplemented rotational grazing system in Argentina and in a freestall system in Slovakia. Cows having an abnormal vaginal discharge (VD, indicative of clinical endometritis) on 21 to 35 d in milk (DIM) were randomly allocated to 1 of 2 study groups: selective treatment (ST) or conventional treatment (CT). All cows in the CT group (n = 174) received a single intrauterine administration of 500 mg of cephapirin. In the ST group (n = 178), treatment decision was made according to the results of the bacteriological on-farm test. For this test, we collected intrauterine samples with the cytobrush technique and stroke the brushes onto 2 different Petrifilm plates, one for aerobic count and another for Enterobacteriaceae count, incubated the plates, and counted the number of colonies after 24 h. Positive cows (≥5 colonies in one or both plates) received a single intrauterine treatment with 500 mg of cephapirin, whereas negative cows (<5 colonies) remained untreated. Clinical cure rate was assessed by direct vaginal inspection at 14 d after treatment (VD-0). The odds for conception at first artificial insemination, artificial insemination by 80 DIM, pregnancy by 100 DIM, and for nonpregnancy by 200 DIM were estimated with mixed logistic regression models. The hazard of conception was also assessed with proportional hazard regression model. The selective antibiotic treatment strategy based on the outcome of Petrifilm test reduced the number of required treatments (57%) and maintained similar efficacy in terms of clinical cure and reproductive performance as the conventional antibiotic treatment of all endometritic cows.

Pain management with flunixin meglumine at dehorning of calves.

Dehorning (DH) of calves is a common procedure on commercial dairy farms. Pain management of calves has been investigated in several studies. It is generally accepted that the use of local anesthesia before DH is essential for pain management. Postoperative inflammatory pain should be treated by using a nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug. The objective of this controlled, randomized, and blinded clinical trial was to determine the effects of the nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drug flunixin meglumine before DH on cortisol concentrations in sera of 5- to 9-wk old calves. Furthermore, selected behavioral characteristics and heart and respiratory rate were examined to assess pain in the hours after dehorning. A total of 80 calves were allocated to 4 groups. In each of 20 replicates, 4 calves were randomly assigned to the following groups: in 3 treatment groups, calves received a local anesthetic (10 mL of procain hydrochloride) and a first treatment (i.v.) with flunixin meglumine or a placebo 20 min before hot-iron dehorning, and a second treatment with flunixin meglumine or a placebo (0.9% saline) 3 h after DH. Calves in the control (CON) group were not dehorned and did not receive any treatment. Groups received 2.2 mg of flunixin meglumine/kg followed by a placebo (FP), 2.2 mg of flunixin meglumine/kg for both treatments (FF), or a placebo for both treatments (PP). Blood samples were collected from all calves, including CON calves, 20 min before restraint in a headlock for DH, 2 min after DH, as well as 30 min and 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 h after DH. Samples were analyzed for concentration of cortisol by enzyme immunoassay. It was found that concentration of cortisol, calculated as area under the curve, was greater in PP compared with FF and tended to be greater compared with FP. Significant differences between PP and FF were detected at 30 min and 2 h after DH. Throughout the observation period, cortisol concentrations were in both flunixin meglumine-treated groups at a similar level as in the CON group. The heart and respiratory rates showed neither difference between the CON group and the 3 dehorned groups nor between the treatment groups.

Comparison of the impact of different anionic salts on the acid-base status and calcium metabolism in non-lactating, non-pregnant dairy cows.

Eleven mature, non-lactating, non-pregnant, Holstein-Friesian crossbred cows were given, via a ruminal cannula, 2000mEq of one of three chloride salts, four sulfate salts, two combinations of anionic salts (AS), sodium chloride (as neutral salt), or water as control. The salts and controls were assigned in an 11x11 Latin square and the cows were randomly distributed. All of the AS induced a metabolic acidosis that resulted in a small reduction of blood pH, base excess, and bicarbonate (P<0.001), and notable changes in urinary pH, net acid base excretion (P<0.001), and urinary calcium excretion (P<0.001). Only calcium chloride had a significantly greater impact on acid-base status (ABS) than the sulfate salts. The effect of other chloride salts did not differ from calcium sulfate. There was no indication that chloride salts in general have a greater impact than sulfate salts on the ABS.

The effect of various anionic salts on ruminant pH and short-chain fatty acids in non-pregnant and non-lactating cows.

AIM: To evaluate whether the different anionic salts used in the prevention of parturient paresis have an impact on the ruminal pH and the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFA) in mature non-pregnant, non-lactating cows. METHODS: Eleven Holstein-Friesian crossbred cows were administered 2,000 mEq of either one of three chloride salts, viz CaCl2, MgCl2, or NH4Cl; four sulphate salts, viz CaSO4, CaSO4 with a grain size of 10 microm, MgSO4, or (NH4)2SO4; two combinations of anionic salts, viz CaCl2+MgSO4, or CaSO4+NH4Cl; NaCl; or water, via a ruminal cannula over a 14-day treatment period. The salts and controls were assigned in an 11 x 11 Latin square, and the cows were distributed randomly. Ruminal fluid was collected four times in each treatment period for monitoring the ruminal pH, and four times a day at Days 7 and 14 for monitoring any changes in the concentrations of SCFA. RESULTS: Feeding anionic salts did not change the ruminal pH, total concentration of SCFA, or distribution pattern of the main SCFA acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid or valeric acid (p>0.05). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Feeding anionic salts has no negative side effect on the ruminal pH and concentrations of SCFA in mature non-pregnant, non-lactating cattle. Impaired function of the rumen due to the feeding of anionic salts is not likely.

The use biochemical and hepatic parameters to predict treatment outcome of dairy cows suffering from displacement of the abomasum.

In this prospective study the impact of fatty liver and an impaired liver function on the treatment outcome of displacement of the abomasum (DA) was investigated. In a yearlong period, all cows suffering from DA submitted to the clinic were included in this study. All cows were clinically examined before surgery and a serum sample was taken to measure the following parameters: ASAT, bilirubin, urea. Liver biopsy was performed in all cows. Liver fat content was measured gravimetrically and concentrations of triglycerides were measured using a commercial test kit. Reposition of DA was done using the method by Dirksen. A total of 365 cows with DA entered the study, 326 (89.3%) suffered from LDA and 39 (10.7%) from RDA. RDA-cows had significantly (p = 0.002) more days in milk than LDA-cows. RDA-cows had significantly (p < 0.001) higher urea concentrations than LDA-cows. Bilirubin concentrations (p = 0.008) and liver fat content, triglyceride concentrations and the ratio of triglycerides to fat (TRI/FAT) (p < 0.001) were significantly higher in LDA-cows. The majority of LDA-cows showed at least a mild fatty liver. Comparing the cows with successful and failed treatment showed that ASAT-activity (p = 0.021), bilirubin concentration (p = 0.001), triglyceride concentration in liver and TRI/FAT (all p < 0.001) were significantly higher in the unsuccessfully treated cows. In RDA cows, significant differences between successfully and unsuccessfully treated cows were only seen in urea concentration (p = 0.004). ROC-analysis was performed to determine whether any parameter is suitable for a prediction of treatment outcome. In RDA-cows no threshold value was traceable for urea concentration. In LDA cows, TRI/FAT showed the best curve progression. The threshold value of 53.5 % had a sensitivity of 0.720 and a specificity of 0.700. LDA-cows exceeding this threshold had a 2.4 higher risk of an unsuccessful treatment. Due to the good overall treatment success (92.3 %) the positive predictive value for an unsuccessful or ineffective treatment was 0.368 only. The results of our study clearly show that impaired liver function plays an important role in the outcome of treatment of LDA but not RDA. In spite of this no laboratory parameter provides sufficient power to make a predictive statement of treatment outcome.

Factors affecting the success rate of treatment of recumbent dairy cows suffering from hypocalcaemia.

We aimed to investigate the ratio of accompanying diseases in cows suffering from clinical hypocalcaemia and their influence on cure rate. In five veterinary practices in different regions of Germany, all recumbent cows around parturition were included in the study for a period of 1 year. After recording the case history a clinical examination was done and a serum sample was taken to measure the concentrations of calcium and phosphorus magnesium, beta-hydroxybutyrate, total bilirubin, cholesterol, urea, and the activities of ASAT, CK, and GLDH. Only cows with hypocalcaemia entered the statistical analysis. Hypocalcaemia was the major cause of recumbency in cows of the second lactation or elder. Muscle damage was the second frequent diagnose in recumbent cows and the major concomitant disease in hypocalcaemic cows. The overall cure rate was between 89.4% and 94.8%. Calcium and phosphorus concentrations did not have an influence on cure rate. Non-cured cows had higher serum activities of CK (p<0.043) and ASAT (p<0.006). Nevertheless, the activities of CK and ASAT were no good predictors of treatment failure because of their low specificity and the high cure rate of the cows in the five practices.

Veterinary dairy herd health management in Europe: constraints and perspectives.

The nature of veterinary work in dairy health management in Europe has changed over the past years and will change even more dramatically in the near future. The consumers and the media show increasing concern about animal welfare, safety of products of animal origin and traceability of animal products. Farmers in Europe have to produce under strict, often expensive and laborious regulations, while still commercially competing with farmers outside the EU and not subject to the same rules. Veterinarians should adapt their knowledge and skills to the new challenges and developments of the dairy sector. Dairy farmers nowadays ask for support in areas that go beyond clinical activities: environmental protection, welfare, nutrition, grassland management, economics and business management. Bovine practitioners should be able to advise in many different areas and subjects--that is the challenge to our profession. Veterinary education with regards to cattle health management should start with individual animal clinical work, which constitutes the basis of herd health advisory programmes. The bovine practitioner should then look beyond that and regard the herd as the unit. Each diseased cow or group of cows should be detected early enough to avoid financial losses or such losses should be prevented altogether by detecting and managing risk factors contributing to disease occurrence. Herd health and production management programmes represent the first level to optimise dairy farm performance. Expansions to that should further be considered, comprising both animal health and welfare issues, as well as food safety and public health issues. The latter could be addressed by quality risk management programmes following the HACCP-principles. Cattle veterinarians should follow recent developments and invest in new skills and knowledge in order to maintain their usefulness to the modern dairy farmer. Finally we are convinced that the cattle practitioner should evolve into this direction, otherwise the veterinarian as we know him will miss the train in the next years.

Experimental studies on the impact of an increased dose of anionic salts on the metabolism of dairy cows.

This study was initiated to investigate the influence of a daily dose of anionic salts (AS) above the valid upper limit at present on metabolism of dairy cows. Eleven non-pregnant and non-lactating Holstein-Friesian crossbred cows with a permanent rumen cannula were used in a study with a controlled feeding design. The initial daily dose was 2500 meq/day, which resulted in a Dietary Cation Anion Difference (DCAD) of -211 meq/kg dry matter. Every seven days,the daily dose was raised by 500 meq. If a cow stopped eating, the application of AS was stopped and these cows were monitored over the next seven days. On day 30 another batch of hay, having the same DCAD but higher concentrations of minerals and energy, was fed. Blood and urine samples were taken to monitor acid-base balance and calcium concentrations. Acid-base balance was strongly influenced by AS. Blood pH dropped steadily and reached values around 7.23. Urine pH dropped quickly below 6 and remained at that level regardless of the increased dosage of AS. Net acid base excretion (NABE) fell continuously with the increase of the dosage of AS and reached values below -200 mmol/l. Calcium concentrations in the serum were nearly stable, but those in urine increased sharply and remained on an elevated level with increasing doses of AS. A few days before the individual cow's refusal of feed intake, calcium excretion in urine decreased. The majority of cows stopped eating while consuming a diet containing 3500 to 4000 meq AS except two animals who consumed up to 6000 meq/day AS but they received the better hay in the second half of the treatment period. In this time pH in blood increased slowly. NABE remained stable on a low level at -100 mmol/l. The results showed that with an increasing amount of AS fed the risk of clinical acidosis increased. The decreasing urine concentrations of calcium indicate a breakdown of the compensation capability of the single cow. Besides the dose of AS fed, the quality of the feed stuff might be another factor concerning the tolerance of cows against AS.

[Body condition and metabolic stability as the basis for high milk yield and undisturbed fertility in dairy cows--a contribution for deduction of reference values]. / Körperkondition und Stoffwechselstabilität als Grundlage für eine hohe Milchleistung bei ungestörter Fruchtbarkeit von Milchkühen--ein Beitrag zur Ableitung von Referenzwerten.

The target of this study was to describe the interactions between body condition and various descriptors of yield and fertility. It was aimed to identify an optimal conditional range to be used in herd management which combines high milk yield with acceptable fertility traits and general health. For this purpose, backfat thickness was measured by ultrasound at 46111 dairy cows on 78 different farms and was subsequently related to production variables. Negative energy balance is getting more intense and prolonged with increasing milk yield. However a conditional nadir below 10 mm leads to decreased milk production. To reach a high production level without an increasing incidence of health disorders, conditional nadir should not decline below 13 mm backfat thickness on herd average. Lower value only lead to negligibly higher milk yield but cause a distinctively higher risk of fertility problems and culling. High herd yields do not have to be at expense of reproduction performance and can be achieved without extreme body condition losses. An efficient herd management can offset depression in fertility, which commonly is combined with increasing milk yield. A standard curve for backfat thickness throughout lactation is suggested to be used in dairy herd management.

[Disturbances in the status of trace elements in cattle from the point of view of herd supervision. 2: New trace elements]. / Störungen im Haushalt der Spurenelemente beim Rind aus Sicht der Bestandsbetreuung. Teil 2: Neue Spurenelemente.

In this bipartite article the current knowledge about trace elements in cattle is reviewed. The second part contains the new trace elements. This group includes the essential elements arsenic, lead, nickel, vanadium, tin, silicon and the accidental elements. Of the last aluminum, boron, cadmium, mercury and thallium have an importance for cattle due to their toxic potential and the risk of contamination of the food originating from the animal.

[Disorders in trace element status in cattle from the view of herd supervision. 1: Classical trace elements]. / Störungen im Haushalt der Spurenelemente beim Rind aus Sicht der Bestandsbetreuung. Teil 1: Klassische Spurenelemente.

In a bipartite review the current knowledge about trace elements in cattle is described. The first part contains the classical trace elements iron, zinc, copper, manganese, molybdenum, iodine, selenium, cobalt, chromium and fluorine. For each trace element the following aspects are illustrated: physiological function, factors leading to deficiency or over-supply, symptoms of deficiency and poisoning and the diagnostic.

[Bovine virus diarrhea (BVD)--diagnostic determination of cattle with persistent BVD virus infection]. / Bovine Virusdiarrhoe (BVD)--Diagnostische Ermittlung von Rindern mit persistenter BVD-Virusinfektion.

Buffy coats of 1074 cattle were examined for regard to BVD virus using the usual long-termed-cultivation (LTC) in bovine kidney monolayer cell cultures (7 days) whereby 268 carriers could be detected. Serum samples collected simultaneously from the same cattle were examined by means of a short-termed-cultivation (STC) of only two days in stationary macroplate cell cultures. Using this method only 172 carriers were found. Amongst 96 serum samples from animals positive in LTC of buffy coat leucocytes and negative in the STC further 19 cattle were found to be viraemic when the sera were tested by LTC, too. Thus 77 of a total of 268 serum samples (28.7%) taken from viraemic cattle turned out to be negative in the STC as well as the LTC. These results are discussed with regard to the antibody level and the age of the animals. The reduced sensitivity is considered in relation to the favourable time and cost factor. STC of serum samples in connection with the serological results proved to be valuable for the examination of cattle of more than 6 months of age but not for calves below 6 months.

BVD virus isolation techniques for routine use in cattle herds with or without previous BVD history.

Buffy coats of 1074 cattle were tested for BVD virus using the usual longterm-cultivation (LTC) in bovine kidney monolayer cell cultures (7 days) whereby 268 BVD virus carriers could be detected. Serum samples collected simultaneously from the same animals were examined by means of a shortterm-cultivation (STC) procedure of only two days in stationary macroplate cell cultures. Using this method only 172 amongst the former 268 BVD virus carriers were found. Of the remaining 96 serum samples from animals positive in buffy coats leucocytes by LTC and negative in sera by STC, further 19 cattle were found to be viraemic when the sera were additionally tested by LTC. These results are discussed with regard to the antibody level and the age of the animals. The reduced sensitivity of STC of sera is considered in relation to the favourable time and cost factor. STC of serum samples in connection with the serological results on a herd basis proved to be valuable for the examination of cattle of more than 6 months of age but not for calves below 6 months. This was particularly true in cattle herds with no previous BVD history.