White matter integrity of right frontostriatal circuit predicts internet addiction severity among internet gamers.

Excessive use of the internet, which is a typical scenario of self-control failure, could lead to potential consequences such as anxiety, depression, and diminished academic performance. However, the underlying neuropsychological mechanisms remain poorly understood. This study aims to investigate the structural basis of self-control and internet addiction. In a cohort of 96 internet gamers, we examined the relationships among grey matter volume and white matter integrity within the frontostriatal circuits and internet addiction severity, as well as self-control measures. The results showed a significant and negative correlation between dACC grey matter volume and internet addiction severity (p < 0.001), but not with self-control. Subsequent tractography from the dACC to the bilateral ventral striatum (VS) was conducted. The fractional anisotropy (FA) and radial diffusivity of dACC-right VS pathway was negatively (p = 0.011) and positively (p = 0.020) correlated with internet addiction severity, respectively, and the FA was also positively correlated with self-control (p = 0.036). These associations were not observed for the dACC-left VS pathway. Further mediation analysis demonstrated a significant complete mediation effect of self-control on the relationship between FA of the dACC-right VS pathway and internet addiction severity. Our findings suggest that the dACC-right VS pathway is a critical neural substrate for both internet addiction and self-control. Deficits in this pathway may lead to impaired self-regulation over internet usage, exacerbating the severity of internet addiction.

The brain markers of creativity measured by divergent thinking in childhood: Hippocampal volume and functional connectivity.

Creativity, a high-order cognitive ability, has received wide attention from researchers and educators who are dedicated to promoting its development throughout one's lifespan. Currently, creativity is commonly assessed with divergent thinking tasks, such as the Alternative Uses Task. Recent advancements in neuroimaging techniques have enabled the identification of brain markers for high-order cognitive abilities. One such brain structure of interest in this regard is the hippocampus, which has been found to play an important role in generating creative thoughts in adulthood. However, such role of the hippocampus in childhood is not clear. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the associations between creativity, as measured by divergent thinking, and both the volume of the hippocampus and its resting-state functional connectivity in 116 children aged 8-12 years. The results indicate significant relations between divergent thinking and the volume of the hippocampal head and the hippocampal tail, as well as the volume of a subfield comprising cornu ammonis 2-4 and dentate gyrus within the hippocampal body. Additionally, divergent thinking was significantly related to the differences between the anterior and the posterior hippocampus in their functional connectivity to other brain regions during rest. These results suggest that these two subregions may collaborate with different brain regions to support diverse cognitive processes involved in the generation of creative thoughts. In summary, these findings indicate that divergent thinking is significantly related to the structural and functional characteristics of the hippocampus, offering potential insights into the brain markers for creativity during the developmental stage.

Long-term abacus training gains in children are predicted by medial temporal lobe anatomy and circuitry.

Abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) is a widely used educational tool for enhancing math learning, offering an accessible and cost-effective method for classroom implementation. Despite its universal appeal, the neurocognitive mechanisms that drive the efficacy of AMC training remain poorly understood. Notably, although abacus training relies heavily on the rapid recall of number positions and sequences, the role of memory systems in driving long-term AMC learning remains unknown. Here, we sought to address this gap by investigating the role of the medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system in predicting long-term AMC training gains in second-grade children, who were longitudinally assessed up to fifth grade. Leveraging multimodal neuroimaging data, we tested the hypothesis that MTL systems, known for their involvement in associative memory, are instrumental in facilitating AMC-induced improvements in math skills. We found that gray matter volume in bilateral MTL, along with functional connectivity between the MTL and frontal and ventral temporal-occipital cortices, significantly predicted learning gains. Intriguingly, greater gray matter volume but weaker connectivity of the posterior parietal cortex predicted better learning outcomes, offering a more nuanced view of brain systems at play in AMC training. Our findings not only underscore the critical role of the MTL memory system in AMC training but also illuminate the neurobiological factors contributing to individual differences in cognitive skill acquisition. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://youtu.be/StVooNRc7T8. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: We investigated the role of medial temporal lobe (MTL) memory system in driving children's math learning following abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) training. AMC training improved math skills in elementary school children across their second and fifth grade. MTL structural integrity and functional connectivity with prefrontal and ventral temporal-occipital cortices predicted long-term AMC training-related gains.

Differentiation between fetal and postnatal iron deficiency in altering brain substrates of cognitive control in pre-adolescence.

BACKGROUND: Early iron deficiency (ID) is a common risk factor for poorer neurodevelopment, limiting children's potential and contributing to global burden. However, it is unclear how early ID alters the substrate of brain functions supporting high-order cognitive abilities and whether the timing of early ID matters in terms of long-term brain development. This study aimed to examine the effects of ID during fetal or early postnatal periods on brain activities supporting proactive and reactive cognitive control in pre-adolescent children. METHODS: Participants were part of a longitudinal cohort enrolled at birth in southeastern China between December 2008 and November 2011. Between July 2019 and October 2021, 115 children aged 8-11 years were invited to participate in this neuroimaging study. Final analyses included 71 children: 20 with fetal ID, 24 with ID at 9 months (postnatal ID), and 27 iron-sufficient at birth and 9 months. Participants performed a computer-based behavioral task in a Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanner to measure proactive and reactive cognitive control. Outcome measures included accuracy, reaction times, and brain activity. Linear mixed modeling and the 3dlme command in Analysis of Functional NeuroImages (AFNI) were separately used to analyze behavioral performance and neuroimaging data. RESULTS: Faster responses in proactive vs. reactive conditions indicated that all groups could use proactive or reactive cognitive control according to contextual demands. However, the fetal ID group was lower in general accuracy than the other 2 groups. Per the demands of cues and targets, the iron-sufficient group showed greater activation of wide brain regions in proactive vs. reactive conditions. In contrast, such condition differences were reversed in the postnatal ID group. Condition differences in brain activation, shown in postnatal ID and iron-sufficient groups, were not found in the fetal ID group. This group specifically showed greater activation of brain regions in the reward pathway in proactive vs. reactive conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Early ID was associated with altered brain functions supporting proactive and reactive cognitive control in childhood. Alterations differed between fetal and postnatal ID groups. The findings imply that iron supplement alone is insufficient to prevent persisting brain alterations associated with early ID. Intervention strategies in addition to the iron supplement should consider ID timing.

A domain-general frontoparietal network interacts with domain-preferential intermediate pathways to support working memory task.

Working memory (WM) is essential for cognition, but the underlying neural mechanisms remain elusive. From a hierarchical processing perspective, this paper proposed and tested a hypothesis that a domain-general network at the top of the WM hierarchy can interact with distinct domain-preferential intermediate circuits to support WM. Employing a novel N-back task, we first identified the posterior superior temporal gyrus (pSTG), middle temporal area (MT), and postcentral gyrus (PoCG) as intermediate regions for biological motion and shape motion processing, respectively. Using further psychophysiological interaction analyses, we delineated a frontal-parietal network (FPN) as the domain-general network. These results were further verified and extended by a delayed match to sample (DMS) task. Although the WM load-dependent and stimulus-free activations during the DMS delay phase confirm the role of FPN as a domain-general network to maintain information, the stimulus-dependent activations within this network during the DMS encoding phase suggest its involvement in the final stage of the hierarchical processing chains. In contrast, the load-dependent activations of intermediate regions in the N-back task highlight their further roles beyond perception in WM tasks. These results provide empirical evidence for a hierarchical processing model of WM and may have significant implications for WM training.

Functional Connectivity Between Basal Forebrain and Superficial Amygdala Negatively Correlates with Social Fearfulness.

Social anxiety is characterized by an intense fear of evaluation from others and/or withdrawal from social situations. Extreme social anxiety can lead to social anxiety disorder. There remains an urgent need to investigate the neural substrates of subclinical social anxiety for early diagnosis and intervention to reduce the risk to develop social anxiety disorder. Twenty-nine young adults were recruited (10 males/19 females; mean age (SD) = 20.34 (2.29)). Trait-like social anxiety was assessed by Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale. Functional magnetic resonance imaging was used with an emotional face-matching paradigm to probe brain activation in response to emotional stimuli including angry, fearful, and happy faces, with shape-matching as a control condition. Behavioral results showed positive correlations between Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale scores and the reaction time in both angry and fearful conditions. The activation of superficial amygdala and the deactivation of basal forebrain in response to angry condition showed positive correlations with the level of social anxiety. In addition, the resting-state functional connectivity between these two regions was negatively correlated with the level of social anxiety. These results may help to understand the individual difference and corresponding neural underpinnings of social anxiety in the subclinical population, and might provide some insight to develop strategies for early diagnosis and interventions of social anxiety to reduce the risk of deterioration from subclinical to clinical level of social anxiety.

Right Fusiform Gray Matter Volume in Children with Long-Term Abacus Training Positively Correlates with Arithmetic Ability.

Abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) training has a positive effect on number-related cognitive abilities. While visuospatial strategy may distinguish AMC from conventional calculation method, the underlying neural mechanism is still elusive. The current study aimed to address this question by examining the plasticity of fusiform induced by AMC training and whether this training affects the association between the volume of fusiform and behavioral performance in numerical cognitive tasks using voxel-based morphometry analysis. The results showed that gray matter volumes of bilateral fusiform were significantly smaller in the AMC group relative to the control group. In addition, the volume of right fusiform was positively correlated with digit memory span and negatively correlated with reaction time of an arithmetic operation task only within the AMC group. These results indicate that bilateral fusiform may be the essential neural substrate for AMC experts to recognize and reconstruct abacus-based representations for numbers. These results may advance our understanding of the neural mechanisms of AMC and shield some lights to potential interactions between brain development and cognitive training in children.

Relations between physical activity and hippocampal functional connectivity: Modulating role of mind wandering.

Physical activity is critical for maintaining cognitive and brain health. Previous studies have indicated that the effect of physical activity on cognitive and brain function varies between individuals. The present study aimed to examine whether mind wandering modulated the relations between physical activity and resting-state hippocampal functional connectivity. A total of 99 healthy adults participated in neuroimaging data collection as well as reported their physical activity in the past week and their propensity to mind wandering during typical activities. The results indicated that mind wandering was negatively related to the resting-state functional connectivity between hippocampus and right inferior occipital gyrus. Additionally, for participants with higher level of mind wandering, physical activity was negatively related to hippocampal connectivity at left precuneus and right precentral gyrus. In contrast, such relations were positive at right medial frontal gyrus and bilateral precentral gyrus for participants with lower level of mind wandering. Altogether, these findings indicated that the relations between physical activity and hippocampal functional connectivity vary as a function of mind wandering level, suggesting that individual differences are important to consider when we aim to maintain or improve cognitive and brain health through increasing physical activity.

Self-control impacts symptoms defining Internet gaming disorder through dorsal anterior cingulate-ventral striatal pathway.

Self-control is important for long-term success and could be a protective factor against maladaptive behaviours such as excessive gaming activity or Internet gaming disorder (IGD). However, the neurobiological basis of self-control and its relationship to IGD remain elusive. Using resting-state fMRI data from 89 participants aged from 18 to 26, we found that self-control and the number of IGD symptoms (IGD-S) were positively and negatively correlated with functional connectivity between right ventral striatum (rVS) and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), respectively. A mediation analysis indicated that self-control influenced IGD-S partially through the rVS-dACC connectivity. In addition, step-wise regression analyses revealed that the rVS connectivity in a reward-anticipation limbic pathway contributed to IGD-S but not self-control, independent of the dACC pathway. These results suggest that the cingulate-ventral striatal functional connectivity may serve as an important neurobiological underpinning of self-control to regulate maladaptive behaviours such as these manifesting IGD through striatal circuitry balance.

Timing of iron deficiency and recognition memory in infancy.

Objective: To determine the relationship between iron deficiency (or iron-deficient, ID) and neural correlates of recognition memory depending on ID timing (gestation vs. infancy) and infant age at testing (9 vs. 18 months).Study design: Event-related potentials (ERP) were used in a visual recognition memory task (mother vs. stranger face) to compare healthy term infants according to iron status at birth and 9 months. Fetal-neonatal ID was defined as cord serum ferritin < 75 µg/l or zinc protoporphrin/heme ratio > 118 µmol/mol, postnatal ID as ≥ 2 abnormal iron measures at 9 months with normal cord-blood iron status, and iron-sufficient as not ID at birth or 9 months. Recognition of mother faces was measured by negative component (Nc) and late slow wave (LSW). These ERP components reflect attention and memory updating processes, respectively.Results: All groups showed differences in Nc amplitude elicited by mother and stranger faces at 9 months. At 18 months, only postnatal ID and iron-sufficient groups showed condition differences in Nc amplitude. However, the 2 groups were different in the involved brain regions. For LSW, only the 2 ID groups showed condition differences in amplitude at 9 months. At 18 months, condition differences were not observed in any group.Conclusions: This study indicates that the timing of ID in early life (fetal-neonatal vs. postnatal) modulates the impact of ID on recognition memory. Such impact also varies depending on the age of infants at testing (9 vs. 18 months).

Interactions between the hippocampus and fronto-parietal regions during memory encoding in early childhood.

The neural mechanisms underlying memory encoding have received much attention in the literature. Research in adults and school-age children suggest that the hippocampus and cortical regions in both frontal and parietal areas are involved in successful formation of memories. Overall, the hippocampus has been shown to interact with fronto-parietal regions to collaboratively support successful memory encoding for both individual items as well as item details (such as the source or color in which the item was originally encountered). To date, only one study has investigated neural regions engaged during memory encoding in children younger than 8 years of age, which is unfortunate since early childhood is a period of dramatic improvement in memory. This previous study indicated that both the hippocampus and cortical regions are involved during the encoding of subsequently remembered item details (i.e., sources). However, this study reported few interactions between these regions, and it did not explore item memory at a more general level. To fill these gaps, this article reanalyzed data from the previous report, aiming to examine the neural correlates of item memory during encoding in early childhood (4-8 years) and interactions between the hippocampus and fronto-parietal regions during encoding. Consistent with research in older individuals, both the hippocampus and fronto-parietal regions were found to participate in item memory encoding. Additionally, functional connectivity between hippocampus and fronto-parietal regions was significantly related to both subsequent item memory and subsequent source memory. Taken together, these findings suggest that not only the activation of individual brain regions (hippocampus and fronto-parietal regions) but also the functional connections between these regions are important for memory encoding. These data add to the growing literature providing insight into how the hippocampus and cortical regions interact to support memory during development.

A Semi-Supervised Few-Shot Learning Model for Epileptic Seizure Detection.

In the past decade, the rapid development of machine learning has dramatically improved the performance of epileptic detection with Electroencephalography (EEG). However, only a small amount of labeled epileptic data is available for training because labeling requires numerous neurologists. This paper proposes a one-step semi-supervised epilepsy detection system to reduce the labeling cost by fully utilizing the unlabeled data. The proposed neural network training strategy enables a more robust and accurate decision boundary by forcing the consistency of the double predictions on the same unlabeled data. The results show that the Area Under Receiver Operating Characteristic (AUROC) curves of our proposed model are 10.3% and 4.9% higher than the supervised methods on CHB-MIT and Kaggle datasets, respectively.

Individualized video recommendation modulates functional connectivity between large scale networks.

With the emergence of AI-powered recommender systems and their extensive use in the video streaming service, questions and concerns also arise. Why can recommended video content continuously capture users' attention? What is the impact of long-term exposure to personalized video content on one's behaviors and brain functions? To address these questions, we designed an fMRI experiment presenting participants with personally recommended videos and generally recommended ones. To examine how large-scale networks were modulated by personalized video content, graph theory analysis was applied to investigate the interaction between seven networks, including the ventral and dorsal attention networks (VAN, DAN), frontal-parietal network (FPN), salience network (SN), and three subnetworks of default mode network (dorsal medial prefrontal (dMPFC), Core, and medial temporal lobe (MTL)). Our results showed that viewing nonpersonalized video content mainly enhanced the connectivity in the DAN-FPN-Core pathway, whereas viewing personalized ones increased not only the connectivity in this pathway but also the DAN-VAN-dMPFC pathway. In addition, both personalized and nonpersonalized short videos decreased the couplings between SN and VAN as well as between two DMN subsystems, Core and MTL. Collectively, these findings uncovered distinct patterns of network interactions in response to short videos and provided insights into potential neural mechanisms by which human behaviors are biased by personally recommended content.

Relations of Creativity to the Interplay Between High-order Cognitive Functions: Behavioral and Neural Evidence.

As a high-order cognitive ability, creativity is viewed as the result of complex interplay between a set of mental processes. However, previous studies have mainly tested one-to-one mutual relations between creativity and other cognitive abilities. It lacks studies to examine whether creativity is related to the interaction between cognitive systems. The current study aimed to fill this gap by testing the relations of creativity to the interactions between cognitive control and episodic memory systems using both behavioral and neuroimaging methods. The Alternative Uses Task was used to measure the divergent component of creativity. A computer-based behavioral task was used to measure cognitive control, episodic memory, and their interactions. Additionally, the interactions between cognitive systems were characterized by computing the resting-state functional connectivity between hippocampus and prefrontal regions, which are the neural substrates for episodic memory and cognitive control, respectively. By analyzing these behavioral and neuroimaging data, the behavioral results indicated that creativity was significantly related to the effect of cognitive control induced by switching tasks or proactive cues on subsequent memories of items or sources. Additionally, neuroimaging results showed that creativity was significantly related to the connectivity from hippocampus to both left superior frontal gyrus and middle frontal gyrus. Such relations were also differentiated between anterior and posterior hippocampus. Altogether, these findings suggest that creativity is related to interactions between cognitive control and episodic memory, supporting the claim that creativity is the result of complex interplay between high-order cognitive functions.

Viewing personalized video clips recommended by TikTok activates default mode network and ventral tegmental area.

Cutting-edge recommendation algorithms have been widely used by media platforms to suggest users with personalized content. While such user-specific recommendations may satisfy users' needs to obtain intended information, some users may develop a problematic use pattern manifested by addiction-like undesired behaviors. Using a popular video sharing and recommending platform (TikTok) as an example, the present study first characterized use-related undesired behaviors with a questionnaire, then investigated how personally recommended videos modulated brain activity with an fMRI experiment. We found more undesired symptoms were related to lower self-control ability among young adults, and about 5.9% of TikTok users may have significant problematic use. The fMRI results showed higher brain activations in sub-components of the default mode network (DMN), ventral tegmental area, and discrete regions including lateral prefrontal, anterior thalamus, and cerebellum when viewing personalized videos in contrast to non-personalized ones. Psychophysiological interaction analyses revealed stronger coupling between activated DMN subregions and neural pathways underlying auditory and visual processing, as well as the frontoparietal network. This study highlights the functional heterogeneity of DMN in viewing personalized videos and may shed light on the neural underpinnings of how recommendation algorithms are able to keep the user's attention to suggested contents.

How Behavior Shapes the Brain and the Brain Shapes Behavior: Insights from Memory Development.

Source memory improves substantially during childhood. This improvement is thought to be closely related to hippocampal maturation. As previous studies have mainly used cross-sectional designs to assess relations between source memory and hippocampal function, it remains unknown whether changes in the brain precede improvements in memory or vice versa. To address this gap, the current study used an accelerated longitudinal design (n = 200, 100 males) to follow 4- and 6-year-old human children for 3 years. We traced developmental changes in source memory and intrinsic hippocampal functional connectivity and assessed differences between the 4- and 6-year-old cohorts in the predictive relations between source memory changes and intrinsic hippocampal functional connectivity in the absence of a demanding task. Consistent with previous studies, there were age-related increases in source memory and intrinsic functional connectivity between the hippocampus and cortical regions known to be involved during memory encoding. Novel findings showed that changes in memory ability early in life predicted later connectivity between the hippocampus and cortical regions and that intrinsic hippocampal functional connectivity predicted later changes in source memory. These findings suggest that behavioral experience and brain development are interactive, bidirectional processes, such that experience shapes future changes in the brain and the brain shapes future changes in behavior. Results also suggest that both timing and location matter, as the observed effects depended on both children's age and the specific brain ROIs. Together, these findings add critical insight into the interactive relations between cognitive processes and their underlying neurologic bases during development.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Cross-sectional studies have shown that the ability to remember the contextual details of previous experiences (i.e., source memory) is related to hippocampal development in childhood. It is unknown whether hippocampal functional changes precede improvements in memory or vice versa. By using an accelerated longitudinal design, we found that early source memory changes predicted later intrinsic hippocampal functional connectivity and that this connectivity predicted later source memory changes. These findings suggest that behavioral experience and brain development are interactive, bidirectional processes, such that experience shapes future changes in the brain and the brain shapes future behavioral changes. Moreover, these interactions varied as a function of children's age and brain region, highlighting the importance of a developmental perspective when investigating brain-behavior interactions.

Physical Activity Modulates the Effect of Cognitive Control on Episodic Memory.

Physical activity may improve cognitive control and episodic memory. Cognitive control could exert positive or negative influences on episodic memory. This study aimed to test whether physical activity modulated the effect of proactive and reactive control on episodic memory. Participants reported their physical activity in the past week, encoded episodic memory incidentally in proactive and reactive conditions, and subsequently retrieved their memories of items and sources. Subsequent item memory was better when items were encoded in proactive vs. reactive condition. Smaller condition difference in subsequent item memory was related to better cognitive control ability. Cognitive control completely mediated the relation between physical activity and the condition difference in subsequent item memory. Additionally, condition difference in subsequent source memory was negatively related to cognitive control. After controlling for cognitive control, greater physical activity was positively related to the difference in subsequent source memory between proactive and reactive conditions. Altogether, the findings suggested that physical activity modulated the effect of proactive and reactive control on subsequent item memory through improving cognitive control ability, but it was independent of cognitive control for subsequent source memory.

Training on Abacus-based Mental Calculation Enhances Resting State Functional Connectivity of Bilateral Superior Parietal Lobules.

Accumulating evidence indicates a positive effect of abacus-based mental calculation (AMC) training on various cognitive functions including short-term memory (STM). Our previous work has shown AMC training-induced activation changes in the frontal-parietal network (FPN) using task fMRI. However, whether AMC training-induced functional plasticity in the same brain network can be detected at resting state remains unknown. The current study aimed to address this question using resting state functional connectivity in a longitudinal AMC training experiment engaging a training group (18 subjects, age = 21.439 ±â€¯0.565) and a control group (18 subjects, age = 21.113 ±â€¯1.140). Our results revealed that the average functional connectivity strength within the FPN showing task activation changes was significantly enhanced after training in the AMC group, whereas it remained stable in the control group. Further analysis indicated that such connectivity increase in the AMC group was primarily driven by the enhanced coupling of bilateral superior parietal lobules (SPL). In addition, a significant and positive correlation between letter forward memory span and SPL connectivity was found at post-training session in the AMC group. While the weakest quartile of SPL connections ranking by pre-training connectivity strength showed the largest effect of enhancement after training, it was the strongest quartile of SPL connectivity that correlated the most with memory span at post-training session. These findings suggest that AMC training may enhance bilateral SPL functional connectivity, through which AMC training might exert a transfer effect to improve short-term memory capacity.

Internet Gaming Disorder Increases Mind-Wandering in Young Adults.

As a primary symptom defining Internet gaming disorder (IGD), preoccupation indicates a mind state in which gamers think about a gaming activity so much that other things appear less important and/or interesting to them. Previous studies have examined the negative impacts of IGD on both cognitive and affective functions, yet no study has investigated the influence of IGD on daily mind state changes that interfere with ongoing tasks. The current study hypothesized that more IGD symptoms lead to a higher frequency of mind state shift in terms of mind-wandering. As social anxiety is related to both IGD and mind-wandering, we further hypothesized that social anxiety would partially contribute to the relationship. Survey data were collected from 632 young adults who were divided into two groups based on whether they reported playing games or not. In the player group, the number of IGD symptoms present was positively related to mind-wandering (r = 0.269, p < 0.001) and social anxiety (r = 0.235, p < 0.001), with the latter two showing a positive correlation in both players (r = 0.37, p < 0.001) and non-players (r = 0.57, p < 0.001). A mediation analysis for the players showed a partial mediation effect of social anxiety on the relationship between IGD and mind-wandering (mediation effect: PM = 0.292, p < 0.001), and the model was replicated in an independent sample. This study suggests that excessive gaming behavior may increase mind-wandering and a shift towards such a non-productive mind state could exert long-term detrimental effects in adolescents and young adults.

Age- and performance-related differences in source memory retrieval during early childhood: Insights from event-related potentials.

Across early childhood, children's ability to remember individual items and the details that accompany these items (i.e., episodic memory) improves greatly. Given that these behavioral improvements coincide with increases in age, effects of age and performance are often confounded. This study used event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate age- and performance-related differences in the neural processes underlying the development of memory for details during early childhood. Using a source memory paradigm, ERP components related to episodic memory, the negative component (Nc), and late slow wave (LSW) were examined in 4- to 8-year-old children. Analyses focused on trials for which children correctly remembered the source related to an item versus trials where the item was remembered but the source was forgotten. Results revealed LSW, but not Nc, differed as a function of age and performance. Specifically, LSW effects were similar across source correct and source incorrect trials in all high-performing children and in low-performing older children; however, LSW effects differed across conditions in low-performing younger children. Results show developmental differences in retrieval processes across early childhood and highlight the importance of considering age and performance when examining electrophysiological correlates of episodic memory during development.