ABSTRACT
South Africa has the highest number of people living with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). High usage of HIV-antiretroviral drugs (ARVs) for the treatment of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) leads to the presence of ARVs in the environment. Wastewater is a major contributor of pharmaceuticals in surface and drinking water as wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are not designed to remove these compounds. Pharmaceuticals in the environment pose risks and the effects of ARVs on non-target organisms are largely unknown. The concentrations of ARVs in surface water upstream and downstream from WWTPs in rivers were determined. The samples were extracted by solid-phase extraction and analysed by using liquid chromatography coupled with a quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometer. Five ARVs were quantified, mostly in downstream samples of the WWTPs, indicating wastewater as a source of ARVs, but this was not apparent in all cases. Nevirapine, lopinavir, and efavirenz were frequently detected; the highest concentrations being lopinavir and efavirenz at 38 µg/L and 24 µg/L, respectively. Aquatic ecosystems are at risk due to the constant input of pharmaceuticals that include large amounts of everyday use and the release of ARVs. This study highlights the potential of increased water pollution worldwide should more people consume increased quantities of pharmaceuticals.
