Depression in comorbid obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder.

Previous findings suggested a unique role that depression symptoms might play in the comorbid relationship between obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, the nature of this role remains unclear. Thus, the current study examined ways in which OCD and PTSD symptoms vary as a function of depression, as well as the mediating role of depression in the OCD-PTSD relationship, in 104 individuals seeking treatment for refractory OCD. Findings revealed that depressed individuals in the treatment-refractory OCD sample report higher levels of overall obsessing and greater severity of PTSD. In addition, depression appeared to mediate the relation between OCD and PTSD. Implications of findings are discussed.

Trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in treatment-resistant obsessive-compulsive disorder.

Prior research has indicated a seemingly unique relation between obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) that appears to relate to negative treatment outcome for OCD. However, to date, the prevalence of trauma and PTSD in individuals seeking treatment for OCD is unclear. To begin to address this gap, this study assessed history of traumatic experiences and current PTSD in individuals seeking treatment for treatment-resistant OCD. Trauma predictors of PTSD severity also were examined in this sample. Participants included 104 individuals diagnosed with treatment-resistant OCD who sought treatment over the course of 1 year from OCD specialty treatment facilities. Data were collected via naturalistic retrospective chart reviews of pre-treatment clinical intake files. Findings revealed that 82% of participants reported a history of trauma. Over 39% of the overall sample met criteria for PTSD, whereas almost 50% of individuals with a trauma history met criteria for PTSD. Interpersonal traumas and greater frequency of traumas were most predictive of PTSD severity, and individuals diagnosed with OCD and additional major depressive disorder (MDD) or borderline personality disorder (BPD) appeared at particular risk for a comorbid PTSD diagnosis. PTSD may be relatively common in individuals diagnosed with treatment-resistant OCD; and interpersonal traumas, MDD, and BPD may play a relatively strong predictive role in PTSD diagnosis and severity in such OCD patients.

Current posttraumatic stress disorder and history of trauma in trichotillomania.

Though some researchers and clinicians postulate that trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may be implicated in the etiologic underpinnings of trichotillomania (TTM), very little research to date has examined such postulations. To address this gap in the literature, the current study assessed the prevalence of trauma and PTSD in 42 individuals seeking treatment for TTM. Relations between symptoms of PTSD and TTM also were examined, as were differences in TTM symptoms between those with and without PTSD. Findings revealed that approximately 76% reported a history of at least one traumatic event, and 19% met criteria for PTSD. Furthermore, negative correlations were demonstrated between symptoms of PTSD and characteristics of TTM, and the PTSD group reported less severe TTM characteristics. Findings suggest that the prevalence of PTSD in TTM may be higher than in the general population and that a history of greater number of types of traumas is associated with a longer duration of hair pulling as well as the scalp as the primary pulling site. The authors also speculate that in traumatized individuals, TTM may represent a form of coping vis-à-vis self-soothing or self-harm.

The relationship between obsessive-compulsive and posttraumatic stress symptoms in clinical and non-clinical samples.

Although case reports suggest the existence of a unique relationship between obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), results from large-scale epidemiological and clinical studies have been more equivocal. Furthermore, symptom overlap may artificially inflate the significance of the relationship between OCD and PTSD. Utilizing the Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory [OCI; Psychol. Assess. 10 (1998) 206] and the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale [PDS; Psychol. Assess. 9 (1997) 445], this study examined the relationship between OCD and PTSD symptoms in 128 patients diagnosed with OCD, 109 patients diagnosed with PTSD, 63 patients diagnosed with another anxiety disorder, and 40 college students. Experts in OCD and PTSD independently rated items on the OCI and PDS for the degree of overlap across the disorders. On the basis of these ratings, we created a scale from each measure that included only non-overlapping items. Results revealed that overall symptoms of OCD and PTSD were related in all samples. However, after controlling for depression and overlapping symptoms simultaneously, this relationship was no longer significant in the OCD and PTSD samples, although it remained significant in the anxious and college student comparison groups. These results support the presence of a relationship between symptoms of OCD and PTSD that may be largely accounted for by a combination of symptom overlap and depression.

Treatment of pharmacotherapy-refractory posttraumatic stress disorder among Cambodian refugees: a pilot study of combination treatment with cognitive-behavior therapy vs sertraline alone.

Cambodian refugees with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) represent a cohort in severe need of treatment, but little information is available to guide treatment choices. We selected a sample of pharmacotherapy-refractory individuals to test the efficacy of combination treatment with sertraline and cognitive-behavior therapy (CBT) for treating PTSD. Participants in this pilot study were ten Khmer-speaking women who had been at a mean age of 22-26 years during the Pol Pot period (1975-1979). These patients were randomly assigned to either sertraline alone or combined treatment. We found that combined treatment offered additional benefit in the range of medium to large effect sizes for PTSD and associated symptoms. Our findings indicate that substantial gains can be achieved by adding CBT to pharmacotherapy for PTSD, and that a program of CBT emphasizing information, exposure, and cognitive-restructuring can be successfully modified for Khmer-speaking refugees.

Connections among symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: a case series.

Theoretical, clinical, and empirical implications of the functional connections between symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are abundant. As such, four cases are presented here of men and women who met criteria for comorbid OCD and PTSD. All had been diagnosed with treatment-resistant OCD and were seeking treatment from an OCD specialty clinic or institute, all reported a history of traumatic experiences prior to the onset of OCD, and all appeared to demonstrate negative treatment outcomes. Upon examination, it appeared that symptoms of OCD and PTSD were connected such that decreases in OCD-specific symptoms related to increases in PTSD-specific symptoms, and increases in OCD-specific symptoms related to decreases in PTSD-specific symptoms. Speculations about the function of OCD symptoms in relation to post-traumatic psychopathology are put forth; and theoretical, research, and treatment implications are discussed.

Peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD severity: do event-related fears about death and control mediate their relation?

Relations among peritraumatic dissociation, PTSD severity, event-related fear (i.e. fear experienced during traumatic event) about death, and event-related fear about losing control were examined in the current study. Particular emphasis was placed on testing whether or not fears about death and losing control mediate the relation between peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD severity in a sample of 146 nontreatment-seeking university women. Results indicated that event-related fears about death and losing control accounted for the relation between peritraumatic dissociation and PTSD severity; that is, the effect of peritraumatic dissociation on PTSD severity was eliminated after controlling for these fears. Speculations about findings are discussed.

Symptoms of posttraumatic stress and death anxiety in persons with HIV and medication adherence difficulties.

The present study examined the frequency and correlates of self-reported symptoms of posttraumatic stress among patients with HIV and medication adherence problems. Self-report data revealed that more than half of participants met diagnostic criteria for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) according to the Posttraumatic Diagnostic Scale PDS. Death anxiety was associated with overall PTSD symptom severity scores as well as severity scores for reexperiencing, avoidance, and arousal symptoms. The association between death anxiety and total PTSD severity, reexperiencing and avoidance symptom scores remained after controlling for depression and satisfaction with social support. Anxiety, as manifested by PTSD symptoms should be routinely assessed among patients with HIV, and variables such as death anxiety, social support, and depression are appropriate targets for mental health interventions.

History of childhood abuse in panic disorder, social phobia, and generalized anxiety disorder.

The authors examined the prevalence of self-reported childhood physical or sexual abuse in a sample of adult patients presenting for treatment of panic disorder, social phobia, or generalized anxiety disorder. Regardless of the presence of comorbid anxiety disorders or comorbid depression, patients with panic disorder had significantly higher rates of past childhood physical or sexual abuse than patients with social phobia. Patients with generalized anxiety disorder had intermediate rates of past physical or sexual abuse that were not significantly different from the other two diagnostic groups. Anxiety disorder patients with a history of childhood abuse were also more likely to have comorbid major depression than those without. These findings are discussed in terms of biological and behavioral factors that may influence the development of anxiety disorders after the experience of a traumatic event.

Comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder: impact on treatment outcome for obsessive-compulsive disorder.

OBJECTIVE: The study tested the effect of comorbid posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) on behavior therapy outcome for obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). METHOD: Subjects were 15 patients with treatment-refractory OCD who were admitted consecutively to a short-term residential facility. Eight met DSM-IV criteria for comorbid PTSD. Patients participated in coached and self-directed behavior treatments of exposure and response prevention as well as in group treatments targeting specific OCD symptoms and related difficulties. Severity of OCD and depression were assessed at admission and exit. RESULTS: Patients with comorbid PTSD showed no significant improvements in OCD and depression symptoms. OCD and depression symptoms improved significantly more in patients without comorbid PTSD than in patients with comorbid PTSD. CONCLUSIONS: Behavioral treatment (with or without medication) of OCD may be adversely affected by the presence of comorbid PTSD.