Steady-state bioequivalence 2-way crossover study of two quetiapine prolonged-release 400 mg tablet formulations in normal male and female healthy subjects under fasting conditions
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OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess bioequivalence between a generic and a brand quetiapine 400 mg prolonged-release (PR) formulation (Pharmathen S.A.; AstraZeneca Seroquel Prolong®<) in healthy volunteers under steady-state conditions. METHODS: Randomized, open-label, steady-state, 2-way crossover design in 48 subjects under fasting conditions. As a quetiapine dose of 400 mg was suspected to be high when administered to healthy subjects, we proceeded with an innovative design where subjects were titrated up using 150 mg, 200 mg, and 300 mg daily doses; first treatment (days 4 - 9) and second treatment (days 10 - 15), and then a tapering down phase (days 16 - 17). Blood samples were collected in EDTA K2< tubes prior to each dosing and over a 24-hour sampling schedule on days 9 and 15. Quetiapine was measured in plasma using LC-MS/MS assay (range 2.5 - 2,000 ng/mL). Pharmacokinetic analyses were performed using non-compartmental method to evaluate AUC>τ, C_max, and C_min. ANOVA was performed on the ln-transformed data and 90% confidence interval (90% CI) was determined. Bioequivalence was concluded if the 90% CI of AUC_τ, C_min, and C_max fell within 80.00 - 125.00%. RESULTS: 46 volunteers completed the study and were included in the analyses. Arithmetic mean (SD) for AUCτ were 7,161.18 (3,687.10) ng×h/mL and 7,184.27 (3,304.29) ng×h/mL, Cmax were 595.61 (345.98) ng/mL and 597.06 (253.67) ng/mL, and Cmin were 119.47 (84.24) ng/mL and 124.22 (137.68) ng/mL, respectively, for the test and reference. All pharmacokinetic parameters met the acceptance criteria as the 90% CI felt within 95.98 - 104.21%, 91.48 - 105.89%, and 86.32 - 104.49% for AUCτ, Cmax, and Cmin, respectively. Both formulations were well tolerated and no serious adverse events were reported. CONCLUSION: Our innovative design allowed safe administration of quetiapine 400 mg PR daily doses to healthy volunteers. Both Pharmathen and AstraZeneca formulations were well tolerated and bioequivalent under steady-state conditions.
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Role of nitric oxide in downregulation of cytochrome P450 1a1 and NADPH: Quinone oxidoreductase 1 by tumor necrosis factor-alpha and lipopolysaccharide.

We previously demonstrated that tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) downregulate aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-regulated genes, such as cytochrome P450 1a1 (Cyp1a1) and NADPH: quinone oxidoreductase 1 (Nqo1) gene expression, yet the mechanisms involved remain unknown. The correlation between the inflammation-mediated suppression of AhR-regulated genes and the TNF-alpha or LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production especially in murine hepatoma Hepa 1c1c7 cells has been questioned; therefore we investigated whether NO is involved in the modulation of Cyp1a1 and Nqo1 by TNF-alpha or LPS in Hepa 1c1c7 cells. A significant dose-dependent increase in the inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) expression and NO production were observed by various concentrations of TNF-alpha (1, 5, and 10 ng/mL) and LPS (1 and 5 microg/mL) which was completely inhibited by a NOS2 inhibitor, L-N6-(1-iminoethyl) lysine (L-NIL) (1 mM). Furthermore, TNF-alpha and LPS significantly induced NOS2 expression. Both TNF-alpha and LPS repressed the beta-naphthoflavone (betaNF)-mediated induction of Cyp1a1 and Nqo1 at mRNA and activity levels. The downregulation of Cyp1a1, but not Nqo1, was significantly prevented by L-NIL. However, proxynitrite decomposer, iron tetrakis (N-methyl-4'-pyridyl) porphyrinato (FeTMPyP) (5 microM) did not affect TNF-alpha- and LPS-mediated downregulation of Cyp1a1 and Nqo1 at mRNA and activity levels. These results show that NO, but not peroxynitrite, may be involved in TNF-alpha- and LPS-mediated downregulation of Cyp1a1 without affecting the downregulation of Nqo1.

Chemoprotective and carcinogenic effects of tert-butylhydroquinone and its metabolites.

Tert-butylhydroquinone (tBHQ) has been commonly used as a synthetic food antioxidant to prevent oils and fats from oxidative deterioration and rancidity due to its potent anti-lipid peroxidation activity. In North America, the maximum level of tBHQ allowed in fat products is 0.02% with an acceptable daily intake of 0-0.7 mg/kg body weight. Extensive studies have demonstrated that tBHQ exhibit anti-carcinogenic effect. The ability of tBHQ to induce phase II xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes through an Nrf2-dependent pathway is thought to be responsible for the observed protective effect of tBHQ. It has been proposed that tBHQ enhances Nrf2-mediated transcription by promoting reactive oxygen species-mediated dissociation of Nrf2-Keap1, Nrf2 stabilization, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt activity, and MAPK pathway activation. In contrast to the beneficial effects of tBHQ, a number of studies have shown that chronic exposure to tBHQ may induce carcinogenicity. However, the precise mechanisms of tBHQ carcinogenicity are not well understood. The toxicity or carcinogenicity of tBHQ has been attributed to the formation of reactive GSH-conjugates, generation of reactive species, CYP1A1 induction, caspase activation and reduced GSH/ATP levels. This review provides an account of recent mechanisms proposed for both chemoprotective and carcinogenic effect of tBHQ.

The stereoselective metabolism of halofantrine to desbutylhalofantrine in the rat: evidence of tissue-specific enantioselectivity in microsomal metabolism.

The pharmacokinetics of the antimalarial drug (+/-)-halofantrine are stereoselective in humans and rats. To better understand the stereoselective metabolism of the drug to its primary metabolite, desbutylhalofantrine (DHF), a series of in vitro and in vivo experiments were undertaken in the rat. Formation of (-)-DHF exceeded that of (+)-DHF in liver microsomes [(-):(+) ratio of intrinsic formation clearances = 1.4]. In contrast, in intestinal microsomes no significant stereoselectivity was noted in the formation of the DHF enantiomers. Intestinal microsomes were also less efficient at producing the DHF enantiomers than were liver microsomes. Based on kinetic analysis of the DHF formation, there appeared to be more than one enzyme involved in the biotransformation. (+/-)-Ketoconazole (KTZ) effectively inhibited the formation of both DHF enantiomers by both liver and intestinal microsomes, although the reduction was more marked in liver microsomes. Through a combination of the use of CYP antibodies and recombinant CYP isoenzymes, the involvement of CYP 2B1/2, 3A1, 3A2, 1A1, 2C11, 2C6, 2D1, and 2D2 were implicated in the metabolism of halofantrine to DHF. Of these, CYP3A1/2 and CYP2C11 appeared to be the primary isoenzymes involved, although CYP2C11 showed greater (+)-DHF than (-)-DHF formation, whereas for CYP3A1 it was similar to the isolated rat liver microsomes. In vivo, oral (+/-)-KTZ caused significant increases in plasma halofantrine and decreases in DHF enantiomer plasma concentrations.

Down-regulation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor-regulated genes by tumor necrosis factor-alpha and lipopolysaccharide in murine hepatoma Hepa 1c1c7 cells.

Although much is known concerning the effects of inflammation and oxidative stress on the cytochrome P450 1A1 (CYP1A1), little is known about the modulation of other aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR)-regulated genes such as glutathione-S-transferase Ya (GST Ya) and NAD(P)H:quinone oxidoreductase (QOR) by inflammation. In the present study, the effect of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on the constitutive and inducible expression of the AHR-regulated genes cyp1a1, GST Ya, and QOR was determined in murine hepatoma Hepa 1c1c7 (WT), AHR-deficient (C12), and AHR nuclear translocator protein (ARNT)-deficient (C4) cells. We found that both TNF-alpha and LPS strongly repressed the constitutive expression and the beta-naphthoflavone-mediated induction of cyp1a1, GST Ya, and QOR in WT but not in C12 and C4 cells. The induction of GST Ya and QOR activities and mRNA levels by phenolic antioxidant, tert-butylhydroquinone, through the antioxidant response element was not significantly affected by TNF-alpha or LPS. In addition, a significant increase in reactive oxygen species was observed in WT, C12, and C4 cells treated with TNF-alpha or LPS which was completely prevented by tert-butylhydroquinone. These results show that the down-regulation of AHR-regulated genes by TNF-alpha and LPS is dependent on the presence of both heterodimeric transcription factors, AHR and ARNT. Furthermore, reactive oxygen species may be involved in the down-regulation of AHR-regulated genes.

tert-Butylhydroquinone is a novel aryl hydrocarbon receptor ligand.

In contrast to the beneficial effects of tert-butylhydroquinone (tBHQ) as a food antioxidant, a number of studies have shown that chronic exposure to tBHQ may induce carcinogenicity. Therefore, we examined the ability of tBHQ to induce the cytochrome P450 1a1 (Cyp1a1), an enzyme known to play an important role in the chemical activation of xenobiotics to carcinogenic derivatives. A significant concentration-dependent increase in Cyp1a1 mRNA, protein, and activity occurred after treatment of murine hepatoma Hepa 1c1c7 cells with tBHQ. The increase in mRNA was apparent 3 h after treatment. The RNA polymerase inhibitor, actinomycin D, completely blocked the Cyp1a1 induction by tBHQ, indicating a requirement of de novo RNA synthesis through transcriptional activation. The protein synthesis inhibitor cycloheximide superinduced the tBHQ-mediated induction of Cyp1a1 mRNA and completely prevented the increase in Cyp1a1 activity, indicating that the induction of enzyme activity by tBHQ is dependent on de novo protein synthesis. In addition, the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) antagonist, resveratrol, inhibited the increase in Cyp1a1 activity by tBHQ. Gel electrophoretic mobility shift assays showed that tBHQ causes activation or transformation of the AHR in nuclear extracts, indicating that AHR-dependent mechanisms contributed to the Cyp1a1 induction. Similar to murine Hepa 1c1c7 cells, tBHQ caused a concentration-dependent increase in CYP1A1 at the mRNA and activity levels in human HepG2 cells. This is the first demonstration that the phenolic antioxidant, tBHQ, can directly induce Cyp1a1 gene expression in an AHR-dependent manner and may represent a novel mechanism by which tBHQ promotes carcinogenicity.

Benzo[a]pyrene, 3-methylcholanthrene and beta-naphthoflavone induce oxidative stress in hepatoma hepa 1c1c7 Cells by an AHR-dependent pathway.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons have been shown to cause oxidative stress in vitro and in vivo in various animal models but the mechanisms by which these compounds produce oxidative stress are unknown. In the current study we have investigated the role of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) in the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by its cognate ligands and the consequent effect on cyp1a1 activity, mRNA and protein expressions. For this purpose, Hepa 1c1c7 cells wild-type (WT) and C12 mutant cells, which are AHR-deficient, were incubated with increasing concentrations of the AHR-ligands, benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P, 0.25-25 microM), 3-methylcholanthrene (3MC, 0.1-10 microM) and beta-naphthoflavone (betaNF, 1-50 microM). The studied AHR-ligands dose-dependently increased lipid peroxidation in WT but not in C12 cells. However, only B[a]P and betaNF, at the highest concentrations tested, significantly increased H2O2 production in WT but not C12 cells. The increase in lipid peroxidation and H2O2 production by AHR-ligands were accompanied by a decrease in the cyp1a1 catalytic activity but not mRNA or protein expressions, which were significantly induced in a dose-dependent manner by all AHR-ligands, suggesting a post-translational mechanism is involved in the decrease of cyp1a1 activity. The AHR-ligand-mediated decrease in cyp1a1 activity was reversed by the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine. Our results show that the AHR-ligands induce oxidative stress by an AHR-dependent pathway.

Expression of cytochrome P450 in lung tumor.

Cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymes have the capability of playing key metabolic roles in several aspects of cancer as a consequence of their unusually broad substrate specificities. CYP450 are also prominent players in the metabolism of anticancer therapeutic drugs, enhancing or diminishing the efficacy of the drugs depending on whether the drug or its metabolites are efficacious. As CYP450 enzymes are also found in lung tissue, lung metabolism can be of importance to the bioactivation of some anticancer agents. The presence of individual forms of CYP450 has been investigated in lung tumor to determine whether intra-tumor metabolism of anticancer agents by CYP450 could occur and thus influence the response of tumor to these agents. Differences in drug metabolism between normal and cancerous lung tissue have been shown to exist, therefore; the variable expression of CYP450 between tumor and normal tissue can provide a basis for selective sensitivity of tissue to anticancer drugs, thereby localizing drug actions to tumor. This review gives a detailed picture of the expression of CYP450 in lung tumor and the role of this enzyme in lung tumor in the fate of anticancer drugs.

Measurement of nitric oxide in murine Hepatoma Hepa1c1c7 cells by reversed phase HPLC with fluorescence detection.

PURPOSE: Nitric oxide (NO) is produced by various cell types in picomolar to nanomolar range and has important roles in a variety of biological functions. The aim of the present study was to investigate a sensitive and reproducible fluorometric HPLC method for measuring nitrite, one of the stable oxidation products of nitric oxide, in murine hepatoma Hepa 1c1c7 cells. METHODS: Hepa 1c1c7 cells were incubated with vehicle or recombinant murine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha, 10 ng/ml) in Hanks' balanced salt solution (HBSS) for 10 hours. Thereafter, the HBSS medium was collected for nitrite analysis. NO production was examined by measuring the conversion of 2, 3-diaminonaphthalene (DAN) to its fluorescent product, 2, 3-naphthotriazole (NAT). NAT was analyzed after elution with 60% of 15 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH = 7.5) and 40% methanol through a 10-microm reversed-phase C18 column (250 x 4.00 mm, I.D.) at a flow rate of 1 ml /min. Fluorescence was monitored with excitation at 375 nm and emission at 415 nm. RESULTS: NAT appeared in approximately 16 min with no interference peaks. The assay yielded linear response within the examined range of 10 - 200 pM (r(2) >0.99) with an intra and inter-day variability of <10 % and accuracy of > 90%. The detection limit for nitrite was 10 pM. NO production by TNF- alpha treated Hepa 1c1c7 cells is estimated to be approximately 2 folds more than untreated cells. CONCLUSION: This fluorometric HPLC assay offers a sensitive and reliable measurement of NO production in cell culture medium.