Identifying wastewater management tradeoffs: Costs, nearshore water quality, and implications for marine coastal ecosystems in Kona, Hawai'i.

Untreated and minimally treated wastewater discharged into the environment have the potential to adversely affect groundwater dependent ecosystems and nearshore marine health. Addressing this issue requires a systems approach that links land use and wastewater management decisions to potential impacts on the nearshore marine environment via changes in water quality and quantity. To that end, a framework was developed to assess decisions that have cascading effects across multiple elements of the ridge-to-reef system. In an application to Kona (Hawai'i, USA), eight land use and wastewater management scenarios were evaluated in terms of wastewater system upgrade costs and wastewater related nutrient loads in groundwater, which eventually discharge to nearshore waters, resulting in potential impacts to marine habitat quality. Without any upgrades of cesspools or the existing wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), discharges of nutrients are expected to increase substantially with permitted development, with potential detrimental impacts to the marine environment. Results suggest that converting all of the existing cesspools to aerobic treatment units (ATU) and upgrading the existing WWTP to R-1 quality provide the highest protection to nearshore marine habitat at a cost of $569 million in present value terms. Other wastewater management options were less effective but also less costly. For example, targeted cesspool conversion (a combination of septic and ATU installation) in conjunction with the WWTP upgrade still provided a substantial reduction in nutrients and potential impacts to marine habitat quality relative to the present situation at a price point roughly $100 million less than the entirely ATU option. Of note, results were more sensitive to the inclusion of the WWTP upgrade option than they were to assumptions regarding the efficiency of the cesspool conversion technologies. The model outputs also suggest that the spatial distribution of potential impacts should be carefully considered when comparing different wastewater management scenarios. When evaluated separately, the WWTP option reduced total nutrients by more than the targeted cesspool conversion option at a fraction of the cost. However, potential improvements in marine habitat quality only occurred in the immediate vicinity of the WWTP, whereas the benefits under targeted cesspool conversion were more evenly distributed along the coast.

Comparación del aporte de vitamina A en leche materna y alimentos complementarios en la dieta de lactantes de 6 meses de Jujuy y Buenos Aires / Comparison of vitamin A intake from breast milk and from complementary foods in the diet of six-month old infants in Jujuy and Buenos Aires

El objetivo fue comparar el patrón alimentario en poblaciones en dos contextos socioculturales diferentes, con énfasis en el aporte de vitamina A de la leche materna y los alimentos complementarios consumidos con mayor frecuencia. Se realizaron encuestas de alimentación del niño al 6º mes a madres lactantes en Jujuy (n= 44) y en Buenos Aires (n= 95). El retinol lácteo se determinó por cromatografía líquida; en los alimentos, se estimaron valor calórico y vitamina A. En Jujuy y Buenos Aires, el 75,6% y el 64,5% de los lactantes recibían alimentos complementarios al 6º mes; más del 50% los habían incorporado antes. El retinol lácteo varió entre 0,02 y 1,19 µg/mL y 0,09 y 1,94 µg/mL para Jujuy y Buenos Aires. Se observaron valores < 0,30 µg/mL, indicativos de déficit, en 67,4% y 26,1% de leches, respectivamente. Los alimentos habituales aportarían suficiente vitamina A en Buenos Aires e insuficiente en Jujuy.

The objective of this study was to compare the dietary pattern of two socio-culturally different populations, focusing on the vitamin A intake from breast milk and from the most commonly consumed complementary foods. Dietary surveys on six- month old infant feeding were administered to breastfeeding mothers in Jujuy (n= 44) and Buenos Aires (n= 95).For milk, the level of retinol was determined by liquid chromatography; for foods, calorie and vitamin A values were estimated. In Jujuy and Buenos Aires, 75.6% and 64.5% of infants were receiving complementary foods at six months old, and more than 50% had started earlier. Milk retinol ranged from 0.02 to 1.19 µg/ mL and from 0.09 to 1.94 µg/mL in mothers in Jujuy and Buenos Aires, respectively.Values <0.30 µg/mL, indicative of vitamin A deficiency, were observed in 67.4% and 26.1% of milk samples, respectively. Usually consumed foods may provide sufficient vitamin A for Buenos Aires participants, but insufficient for those in Jujuy

Comparison of vitamin A intake from breast milk and from complementary foods in the diet of six-month old infants in Jujuy and Buenos Aires.

The objective of this study was to compare the dietary pattern of two socio-culturally different populations, focusing on the vitamin A intake from breast milk and from the most commonly consumed complementary foods. Dietary surveys on six-month old infant feeding were administered to breastfeeding mothers in Jujuy (n= 44) and Buenos Aires (n= 95).For milk, the level of retinol was determined by liquid chromatography; for foods, calorie and vitamin A values were estimated. In Jujuy and Buenos Aires, 75.6% and 64.5% of infants were receiving complementary foods at six months old, and more than 50% had started earlier. Milk retinol ranged from 0.02 to 1.19 µg/ mL and from 0.09 to 1.94 µg/mL in mothers in Jujuy and Buenos Aires, respectively.Values <0.30 µg/mL, indicative of vitamin A deficiency, were observed in 67.4% and 26.1% of milk samples, respectively. Usually consumed foods may provide sufficient vitamin A for Buenos Aires participants, but insufficient for those in Jujuy.

Comparison of vitamin A intake from breast milk and from complementary foods in the diet of six-month old infants in Jujuy and Buenos Aires. / Comparison of vitamin A intake from breast milk and from complementary foods in the diet of six-month old infants in Jujuy and Buenos Aires.

The objective of this study was to compare the dietary pattern of two socio-culturally different populations, focusing on the vitamin A intake from breast milk and from the most commonly consumed complementary foods. Dietary surveys on six-month old infant feeding were administered to breastfeeding mothers in Jujuy (n= 44) and Buenos Aires (n= 95).For milk, the level of retinol was determined by liquid chromatography; for foods, calorie and vitamin A values were estimated. In Jujuy and Buenos Aires, 75.6

and 64.5

of infants were receiving complementary foods at six months old, and more than 50

had started earlier. Milk retinol ranged from 0.02 to 1.19 Ag/ mL and from 0.09 to 1.94 Ag/mL in mothers in Jujuy and Buenos Aires, respectively.Values <0.30 Ag/mL, indicative of vitamin A deficiency, were observed in 67.4

and 26.1

of milk samples, respectively. Usually consumed foods may provide sufficient vitamin A for Buenos Aires participants, but insufficient for those in Jujuy.