Ecdysteroid metabolism in mammals: The fate of ingested 20-hydroxyecdysone in mice and rats.

Phytoecdysteroids are molecules derived from sterol metabolism and found in many plants. They display a wide array of pharmacological effects on mammals (e.g. anabolic, anti-diabetic). Although these effects have been long established, the molecular targets involved remain to be identified. Like endogenous steroid hormones and bile acids, which are biochemically related, ingested or injected phytoecdysteroids undergo a set of reactions in mammals leading to the formation of numerous metabolites, only some of which have been so far identified, and it is presently unknown whether they represent active metabolites or inactivation products. In the large intestine, ecdysteroids undergo efficient 14-dehydroxylation. Other changes (reductions, epimerization, side-chain cleavage) are also observed, but whether these occur in the liver and/or large intestine is not known. The purpose of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetics of 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), the most common phytoecdysteroid, when administered to mice and rats, using, when required, tritium-labelled molecules to permit metabolic tracking. Bioavailability, the distribution of radioactivity and the kinetics of formation of metabolites were followed for 24-48 hours after ingestion and qualitative and quantitative analyses of circulating and excreted compounds were performed. In mice, the digestive tract always contains the majority of the ingested 20E. Within 30 min after ingestion, 20E reaches the large intestine, where microorganisms firstly remove the 14-hydroxyl group and reduce the 6-one. Then a very complex set of metabolites (not all of which have yet been identified) appears, which correspond to poststerone derivatives formed in the liver. We have observed that these compounds (like bile acids) undergo an entero-hepatic cycle, involving glucuronide conjugation in the liver and subsequent deconjugation in the intestine. Despite the very short half-life of ecdysteroids in mammals, this entero-hepatic cycle helps to maintain their plasma levels at values which, albeit low (≤0.2 µM), would be sufficient to evoke several pharmacological effects. Similar 20E metabolites were observed in mice and rats; they include in particular 14-deoxy-20E, poststerone and 14-deoxypoststerone and their diverse reduction products; the major products of this metabolism have been unambiguously identified. The major sites of metabolism of exogenous ecdysteroids in mammals are the large intestine and the liver. The entero-hepatic cycle contributes to the metabolism and to maintaining a low, but pharmacologically significant, concentration of ecdysteroids in the blood for ca. 24 h after ingestion. These data, together with parallel in vitro experiments provide a basis for the identification of 20E metabolite(s) possibly involved in the physiological effects associated with ecdysteroids in mammals.

Dopamine D2 receptors gate generalization of conditioned threat responses through mTORC1 signaling in the extended amygdala.

Overgeneralization of conditioned threat responses is a robust clinical marker of anxiety disorders. In overgeneralization, responses that are appropriate to threat-predicting cues are evoked by perceptually similar safety-predicting cues. Inappropriate learning of conditioned threat responses may thus form an etiological basis for anxiety disorders. The role of dopamine (DA) in memory encoding is well established. Indeed by signaling salience and valence, DA is thought to facilitate discriminative learning between stimuli representing safety or threat. However, the neuroanatomical and biochemical substrates through which DA modulates overgeneralization of threat responses remain poorly understood. Here we report that the modulation of DA D2 receptor (D2R) signaling bidirectionally regulates the consolidation of fear responses. While the blockade of D2R induces generalized threat responses, its stimulation facilitates discriminative learning between stimuli representing safety or threat. Moreover, we show that controlled threat generalization requires the coordinated activation of D2R in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and the central amygdala. Finally, we identify the mTORC1 cascade activation as an important molecular event by which D2R mediates its effects. These data reveal that D2R signaling in the extended amygdala constitutes an important checkpoint through which DA participates in the control of threat processing and the emergence of overgeneralized threat responses.

Phytochemical analysis and bioactivity of the aerial parts of Abutilon theophrasti (Malvaceae), a medicinal weed.

Phytochemical investigations of aerial parts of Abutilon theophrasti yielded (6S,9R)-roseoside (1) and (6S,9S)-roseoside (2) which are new for the genus. The elucidation of the chemical structures was established by mass spectrometry, 1D and 2D NMR experiments. Although methanol extracts contained 48.5 ± 7.2 mg of caffeic acid equivalents and 15.87 ± 4.6 mg of quercetin equivalents, the antioxidant activity, as revealed by DPPH and ABTS assays, was of medium strength (EC50 of 306.2 ± 16.3 and 394.3 ± 14.8 µg/mL, respectively). A. theophrasti extract inhibits soybean 5-LOX with IC50 value 2.89 ± 0.2 mg/mL. The cytotoxicity of the methanol extract against MCF-7, CCRF-CEM and CEM/ADR5000 cancer cells resulted in IC50 values of 505.8 ± 34.7 µg/mL for MCF-7, 75.6 ± 7.1 µg/mL for CCRF-CEM, and 89.5 ± 13.4 µg/mL for CEM/ADR 5000 cells.

Segmentation of dynamic PET images with kinetic spectral clustering.

Segmentation is often required for the analysis of dynamic positron emission tomography (PET) images. However, noise and low spatial resolution make it a difficult task and several supervised and unsupervised methods have been proposed in the literature to perform the segmentation based on semi-automatic clustering of the time activity curves of voxels. In this paper we propose a new method based on spectral clustering that does not require any prior information on the shape of clusters in the space in which they are identified. In our approach, the p-dimensional data, where p is the number of time frames, is first mapped into a high dimensional space and then clustering is performed in a low-dimensional space of the Laplacian matrix. An estimation of the bounds for the scale parameter involved in the spectral clustering is derived. The method is assessed using dynamic brain PET images simulated with GATE and results on real images are presented. We demonstrate the usefulness of the method and its superior performance over three other clustering methods from the literature. The proposed approach appears as a promising pre-processing tool before parametric map calculation or ROI-based quantification tasks.

The metabolism of 20-hydroxyecdysone in mice: relevance to pharmacological effects and gene switch applications of ecdysteroids.

Ecdysteroids exert many pharmacological effects in mammals (including humans), most of which appear beneficial, but their mechanism of action is far from understood. Whether they act directly and/or after the formation of metabolites is still an open question. The need to investigate this question has gained extra impetus because of the recent development of ecdysteroid-based gene-therapy systems for mammals. In order to investigate the metabolic fate of ecdysteroids in mice, [1α,2α-(3)H]20-hydroxyecdysone was prepared and injected intraperitoneally to mice. Their excretory products (urine+faeces) were collected and the different tritiated metabolites were isolated and identified. The pattern of ecdysteroid metabolites is very complex, but no conjugates were found, in contrast to the classical fate of the (less polar) endogenous vertebrate steroid hormones. Primary reactions involve dehydroxylation at C-14 and side-chain cleavage between C-20 and C-22, thereby yielding 14-deoxy-20-hydroxyecdysone, poststerone and 14-deoxypoststerone. These metabolites then undergo several reactions of reduction involving, in particular, the 6-keto-group. A novel major metabolite has been identified as 2ß,3ß,6α,22R,25-pentahydroxy-5ß-cholest-8(14)-ene. The formation of this and the other major metabolites is discussed in relation to the various effects of ecdysteroids already demonstrated on vertebrates.

NMR applications for identifying ß-TrCP protein-ligand interactions.

In the absence of crystallographic data, NMR has emerged as the best way to define protein-ligand interactions. Using NMR experiments based on magnetization transfer, one can sort bound from unbound molecules, estimate the dissociation constant, identify contacts implied in the binding, characterize the structure of the bound ligand and conduct ligand competition assays.

[Axon and Schwann cells... so far away, so close]. / Axones et cellules de Schwann... si loin, si proches.

Myelination was a major step in the evolution of the nervous system. Appearing first in jaw fish, myelination allows the fast and secure propagation of action potentials at a low energetic cost, and without exaggerated increase in axonal diameter. In the peripheral nervous system of mammals, myelination results from the tight interactions between Schwann cells and axons, leading to the formation of highly differentiated domains along the axon. The molecular determinants of these interactions are starting to be well identified. Their understanding provides a precise framework to interpret the defects, which occur in pathological circumstances. This review summarizes the present state of knowledge concerning axoglial interactions in peripheral nerves.

[Role and regulation of dopamine D1 receptors in the striatum: implications for the genesis of dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease]. / Rôle et régulation du récepteur D1 de la dopamine dans le striatum: implications dans les dyskinésies de la maladie de Parkinson.

L-dopa treatment of Parkinson's disease is complicated in the long term by the appearance of dyskinesia. Hypersensitivity of D1 dopamine receptor has been suggested to play a role in these delayed adverse effects. Hypersensitivity of dopamine D1 receptor in Parkinson's disease can be accounted for by increased levels of Galphaolf, the stimulatory G protein which couples D1 receptor to adenylyl cyclase in the striatum. We here discuss the possible role of D1 receptor signal transduction in the genesis of L-dopa-induced dyskinesia in the light of Galphaolf regulation.

Nodal, paranodal and juxtaparanodal axonal proteins during demyelination and remyelination in multiple sclerosis.

Saltatory conduction in myelinated fibres depends on the specific molecular organization of highly specialized axonal domains at the node of Ranvier, the paranodal and the juxtaparanodal regions. Voltage-gated sodium channels (Na(v)) have been shown to be deployed along the naked demyelinated axon in experimental models of CNS demyelination and in multiple sclerosis lesions. Little is known about aggregation of nodal, paranodal and juxtaparanodal constituents during the repair process. We analysed by immunohistochemistry on free-floating sections from multiple sclerosis brains the expression and distribution of nodal (Na(v) channels), paranodal (paranodin/Caspr) and juxtaparanodal (K(v) channels and Caspr2) molecules in demyelinated and remyelinated lesions. Whereas in demyelinated lesions, paranodal and juxtaparanodal proteins are diffusely distributed on denuded axons, the distribution of Na(v) channels is heterogeneous, with a diffuse immunoreactivity but also few broad Na(v) channel aggregates in all demyelinated lesions. In contrast to the demyelinated plaques, all remyelinated lesions are characterized by the detection of aggregates of Na(v) channels, paranodin/Caspr, K(v) channels and Caspr2. Our data suggest that these aggregates precede remyelination, and that Na(v) channel aggregation is the initial event, followed by aggregation of paranodal and then juxtaparanodal axonal proteins. Remyelination takes place in multiple sclerosis tissue but myelin repair is often incomplete, and the reasons for this remyelination deficit are many. We suggest that a defect of Na(v) channel aggregation might be involved in the remyelination failure in demyelinated lesions with spared axons and oligodendroglial cells.

Plasma-kinetic characteristics of purified and isolated green tea catechin epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) after 10 days repeated dosing in healthy volunteers.

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study assessed the safety, tolerability, and plasma-kinetic behavior of 94% pure crystalline epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) after ten days' repeated dosing in 36 healthy male volunteers. Each of the three treatment groups consisted of 12 subjects; nine of them received oral EGCG in one dose of 200, 400, or 800 mg daily, and three received a placebo. Blood samples for plasma-kinetic EGCG characterization were taken on day 1 and day 10. Kinetic parameters for rate and extent, elimination half-lives, and accumulation factor (R) were determined and compared between day 1 and day 10 for each dosage group. Orally administered EGCG is rapidly absorbed from the gut. Dose linearity was applied for single-dose application (day 1). After repeated dosing (day 10) dose linearity was applied between the 200 mg and 400 mg group. Dose escalation to 800 mg was more than dose-proportional in rate and extent, and statistically different from the 200 mg and 400 mg group. An increase in elimination half-life (t1/2.z) and in the accumulation factor (R) in the 800 mg dosage group indicates dose-dependent saturation of capacity-limited excretion routes or an increase of hepato-duodenal re-circulation. Ten days' repeated administration of oral doses of EGCG of up to 800 mg per day were found to be safe and very well tolerated.

[Cannabis and cannabinoid receptors: from pathophysiology to therapeutic options]. / Cannabis et récepteurs cannabinoïdes: de la physiopathologie aux possibilités thérapeutiques.

BACKGROUND: Although cannabis has been used as a medicine for several centuries, the therapeutic properties of cannabis preparations (essentially haschich and marijuana) make them far most popular as a recreational drugs. STATE OF THE ART: Scientific studies on the effects of cannabis were advanced considerably by the identification in 1964 of cannabinoid D9-tetrahydrocannadinol (THC), recognized as the major active constituent of cannabis. Cloning of the centrally located CB1 receptor in 1990 and the identification of the first endogenous ligand of the CB1 receptor, anandamide, in 1992 further advanced our knowledge. PERSPECTIVE AND CONCLUSIONS: Progress has incited further research on the biochemistry and pharmacology of the cannabinoids in numerous diseases of the central nervous system. In the laboratory animal, cannabinoids have demonstrated potential in motion disorders, demyelinizing disease, epilepsy, and as anti-tumor and neuroprotector agents. Several clinical studies are currently in progress, but therapeutic use of cannabinoids in humans couls be hindered by undesirable effects, particularly psychotropic effects. CB1 receptor antagonists also have interesting therapeutic potential.

A single ascending dose study of epigallocatechin gallate in healthy volunteers.

This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study assessed the safety, tolerability and plasma kinetic behaviour of single oral doses of 94% pure crystalline bulk epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) under fasting conditions in 60 healthy male volunteers. In each group of 10 subjects, eight received oral EGCG in single doses of 50 mg, 100 mg, 200 mg, 400 mg, 800 mg or 1600 mg, and two received placebo. Blood samples were taken at intervals until 26 h later. The area under the concentration-time curve from 0 h to infinity (AUC(0-infinity)), the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of EGCG, the time taken to reach the maximum concentration (Tmax), and the terminal elimination half-life (t1/2z) of EGCG were determined. Safety and tolerability were assessed. In each dosage group, the kinetic profile revealed rapid absorption with a one-peak plasma concentration versus time course, followed by a multiphasic decrease consisting of a distribution phase and an elimination phase. The mean AUC(0-infinity) of total EGCG varied between 442 and 10,368 ng.h/ml. The according mean Cmax values ranged from 130 to 3392 ng/ml and were observed after 1.3-2.2 h. The mean t1/2z values were seen between 1.9 and 4.6 h. Single oral doses of EGCG up to 1600 mg were safe and very well tolerated.

NBT-II carcinoma behaviour is not dependent on cell-cell communication through gap junctions.

To study the mechanism(s) underlying the proliferation of heterogeneous cell populations within a solid tumour, the NBT-II rat bladder carcinoma system was used. It has been first investigated whether the different cell populations are coupled through gap junctions (GJIC). Cells overexpressing the Cx43 were generated to test for any tumour suppressive activity in vivo. To determine whether GJIC is essential for tumour proliferation and the establishment of a cooperative community effect, NBT-II cells that are incompetent for cell coupling were generated. The data report that (i) carcinoma cells expressing or not FGF-1 are coupled through GJIC in vitro and in coculture and express the gap junction protein Cx43, (ii) overexpression of Cx43 in these cells does not affect their in vitro coupling capacities and in vivo tumourigenic growth properties, (iii) inhibition of GJIC through antisense strategy has no in vivo obvious consequence on the tumour growth properties of the carcinoma, and (iv) the community effect between two carcinoma cell populations does not critically involve cell coupling through gap junctions.

Essential role of oligodendrocytes in the formation and maintenance of central nervous system nodal regions.

The membrane of myelinated axons is divided into functionally distinct domains characterized by the enrichment of specific proteins. The mechanisms responsible for this organization have not been fully identified. To further address the role of oligodendrocytes in the functional segmentation of the axolemma in vivo, the distribution of nodal (Na(+) channels, ankyrin G), paranodal (paranodin/contactin-associated-protein) and juxtaparanodal (Kv1.1 K(+) channels) axonal markers, was studied in the brain of MBP-TK and jimpy mice. In MBP-TK transgenic mice, oligodendrocyte ablation was selectively induced by FIAU treatment before and during the onset of myelination. In jimpy mice, oligodendrocytes degenerate spontaneously within the first postnatal weeks after the onset of myelination. Interestingly, in MBP-TK mice treated for 1-20 days with FIAU, despite the ablation of more than 95% of oligodendrocytes, the protein levels of all tested nodal markers was unaltered. Nevertheless, these proteins failed to cluster in the nodal regions. By contrast, in jimpy mice, despite a diffused localization of paranodin, the formation of nodal clusters of Na(+) channels and ankyrin G was observed. Furthermore, K(+) channels clusters were transiently visible, but were in direct contact with nodal markers. These results demonstrate that the organization of functional domains in myelinated axons is oligodendrocyte dependent. They also show that the presence of these cells is a requirement for the maintenance of nodal and paranodal regions.

Sheep prion protein synthetic peptide spanning helix 1 and beta-strand 2 (residues 142-166) shows beta-hairpin structure in solution.

According to the "protein only" hypothesis, a conformational conversion of the non-pathogenic "cellular" prion isoform into a pathogenic "scrapie" isoform is the fundamental event in the onset of prion diseases. During this pathogenic conversion, helix H1 and two adjacent surface loops L2 and L3 of the normal prion protein are thought to undergo a conformational transition into an extended beta-like structure, which is prompted by interactions with the pre-existing beta-sheet. To get more insight into the interaction between the helix and one of the beta-strands in the partially unfolded prion protein, the solution structure of a synthetic linear peptide spanning helix H1 and beta-strand S2 (residues 142-166 in human numbering) was studied by circular dichroism and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopies. We found that, in contrast to many prion fragments studied earlier, this peptide (i) is highly soluble and does not aggregate up to a millimolar concentration range in aqueous medium and (ii) exhibits an intrinsic propensity to a beta-hairpin like conformation at neutral pH. This beta-propensity can be one of the internal driving forces of the molecular rearrangement responsible for the pathogenic conversion of the prion protein.

Dual role of Fyn in the regulation of FAK+6,7 by cannabinoids in hippocampus.

In hippocampus endocannabinoids modulate synaptic function and plasticity and increase tyrosine phosphorylation of several proteins, including focal adhesion kinase (FAK). Autophosphorylation of FAK on Tyr-397 is generally a critical step for its activation, allowing the recruitment of Src family kinases, and phosphorylation of FAK and associated proteins. We have examined the mechanisms of the regulation of FAK by cannabinoids in rat and mouse hippocampal slices. Anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol, two endocannabinoids, and Delta9-tetrahydrocannabinol, stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of FAK+6,7, a neuronal splice isoform of FAK, on several residues including Tyr-397. Cannabinoids increased phosphorylation of p130-Cas, a protein associated with FAK, but had no effect on PYK2, a tyrosine kinase related to FAK and enriched in hippocampus. Pharmacological experiments and the use of knockout mice demonstrated that the effects of cannabinoids were mediated through CB1 receptors. These effects were sensitive to manipulation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase, suggesting that they were mediated by inhibition of a cAMP pathway. PP2, an Src family kinase inhibitor, prevented the effects of cannabinoids on p130-Cas and on FAK+6,7 tyrosines 577 and 925, but not 397, indicating that FAK autophosphorylation was upstream of Src family kinases in response to CB1-R stimulation. Endocannabinoids increased the association of Fyn, but not Src, with FAK+6,7. In hippocampal slices from Fyn -/- mice, the levels of p130-Cas were increased, and the effects of endocannabinoids on tyrosine phosphorylation, including of Tyr-397, were completely abolished. These results demonstrate the specific functional association of Fyn with FAK+6,7 in a pathway regulated by endocannabinoids, in which Fyn may play roles dependent and independent of its catalytic activity.

Ezrin interacts with focal adhesion kinase and induces its activation independently of cell-matrix adhesion.

Ezrin, a membrane-cytoskeleton linker, is required for cell morphogenesis, motility, and survival through molecular mechanisms that remain to be elucidated. Using the N-terminal domain of ezrin as a bait, we found that p125 focal adhesion kinase (FAK) interacts with ezrin. We show that the two proteins coimmunoprecipitate from cultured cell lysates. However, FAK does not interact with full-length ezrin in vitro, indicating that the FAK binding site on ezrin is cryptic. Mapping experiments showed that the entire N-terminal domain of FAK (amino acids 1-376) is required for optimal ezrin binding. While investigating the role of the ezrin-FAK interaction, we observed that, in suspended kidney-derived epithelial LLC-PK1 cells, overproduction of ezrin promoted phosphorylation of FAK Tyr-397, the major autophosphorylation site, creating a docking site for FAK signaling partners. Treatment of the cells with a Src family kinase inhibitor reduced the phosphorylation of Tyr-577 but not that of Tyr-397, indicating that ezrin-mediated FAK activation does not require the activity of Src kinases. Altogether, these observations indicate that ezrin is able to trigger FAK activation in signaling events that are not elicited by cell-matrix adhesion.

Galpha(olf) levels are regulated by receptor usage and control dopamine and adenosine action in the striatum.

In the striatum, dopamine D(1) and adenosine A(2A) receptors stimulate the production of cAMP, which is involved in neuromodulation and long-lasting changes in gene expression and synaptic function. Positive coupling of receptors to adenylyl cyclase can be mediated through the ubiquitous GTP-binding protein Galpha(S) subunit or through the olfactory isoform, Galpha(olf), which predominates in the striatum. In this study, using double in situ hybridization, we show that virtually all striatal efferent neurons, identified by the expression of preproenkephalin A, substance P, or D(1) receptor mRNA, contained high amounts of Galpha(olf) mRNA and undetectable levels of Galpha(s) mRNA. In contrast, the large cholinergic interneurons contained both Galpha(olf) and Galpha(s) transcripts. To assess the functional relationship between dopamine or adenosine receptors and G-proteins, we examined G-protein levels in the striatum of D(1) and A(2A) receptor knock-out mice. A selective increase in Galpha(olf) protein was observed in these animals, without change in mRNA levels. Conversely, Galpha(olf) levels were decreased in animals lacking a functional dopamine transporter. These results indicate that Galpha(olf) protein levels are regulated through D(1) and A(2A) receptor usage. To determine the functional consequences of changes in Galpha(olf) levels, we used heterozygous Galpha(olf) knock-out mice, which possess half of the normal Galpha(olf) levels. In these animals, the locomotor effects of amphetamine and caffeine, two psychostimulant drugs that affect dopamine and adenosine signaling, respectively, were markedly reduced. Together, these results identify Galpha(olf) as a critical and regulated component of both dopamine and adenosine signaling.

Purification and structure of the major product obtained by reaction of NADPH and NMNH with the myeloperoxidase/hydrogen peroxide/chloride system.

The first spectrophotometric study of the reaction of the myeloperoxidase/H2O2/Cl- system with NADPH and NMNH showed that the reaction products were not the corresponding oxidized nucleotides and that modifications would take place on the nicotinamide part of the molecule [Auchère, F. & Capeillère-Blandin, C. (1999) Biochem. J. 343, 603-613]. In this report, in order to obtain more precise information on the structural modifications and mechanism of the reaction, we focus on the purification and isolation of products derived from NADPH and NMNH by RP-HPLC. Electrospray ionization mass spectra indicated that the relative height of the peaks reflected that of the natural isotopic abundance of 35Cl and 37Cl, providing evidence that the products derived from NADPH and NMNH were monochlorinated. Moreover, calculated masses revealed the 1 : 1 addition of HOCl to the molecule. Various 1D and 2D NMR experiments provided data for the assignments of the chemical shifts of protons and carbons and the coupling constants of the protons of the chlorinated nucleotides. Further NOESY experiments allowed the characterization of the spatial structure of the chlorinated product and showed that trans HOCl addition occurred at the C5=C6 carbon double bond of the nicotinamide ring, leading to a chlorohydrin.