Exploring switch II pocket conformation of KRAS(G12D) with mutant-selective monobody inhibitors.

The G12D mutation is among the most common KRAS mutations associated with cancer, in particular, pancreatic cancer. Here, we have developed monobodies, small synthetic binding proteins, that are selective to KRAS(G12D) over KRAS(wild type) and other oncogenic KRAS mutations, as well as over the G12D mutation in HRAS and NRAS. Crystallographic studies revealed that, similar to other KRAS mutant-selective inhibitors, the initial monobody bound to the S-II pocket, the groove between switch II and α3 helix, and captured this pocket in the most widely open form reported to date. Unlike other G12D-selective polypeptides reported to date, the monobody used its backbone NH group to directly recognize the side chain of KRAS Asp12, a feature that closely resembles that of a small-molecule inhibitor, MTRX1133. The monobody also directly interacted with H95, a residue not conserved in RAS isoforms. These features rationalize the high selectivity toward the G12D mutant and the KRAS isoform. Structure-guided affinity maturation resulted in monobodies with low nM KD values. Deep mutational scanning of a monobody generated hundreds of functional and nonfunctional single-point mutants, which identified crucial residues for binding and those that contributed to the selectivity toward the GTP- and GDP-bound states. When expressed in cells as genetically encoded reagents, these monobodies engaged selectively with KRAS(G12D) and inhibited KRAS(G12D)-mediated signaling and tumorigenesis. These results further illustrate the plasticity of the S-II pocket, which may be exploited for the design of next-generation KRAS(G12D)-selective inhibitors.

Monobody Inhibitor Selective to the Phosphatase Domain of SHP2 and its Use as a Probe for Quantifying SHP2 Allosteric Regulation.

SHP2 is a phosphatase/adaptor protein that plays an important role in various signaling pathways. Its mutations are associated with cancers and developmental diseases. SHP2 contains a protein tyrosine phosphatase (PTP) and two SH2 domains. Selective inhibition of these domains has been challenging due to the multitude of homologous proteins in the proteome. Here, we developed a monobody, synthetic binding protein, that bound to and inhibited the SHP2 PTP domain. It was selective to SHP2 PTP over close homologs. A crystal structure of the monobody-PTP complex revealed that the monobody bound both highly conserved residues in the active site and less conserved residues in the periphery, rationalizing its high selectivity. Its epitope overlapped with the interface between the PTP and N-terminal SH2 domains that is formed in auto-inhibited SHP2. By using the monobody as a probe for the accessibility of the PTP active site, we developed a simple, nonenzymatic assay for the allosteric regulation of SHP2. The assay showed that, in the absence of an activating phospho-Tyr ligand, wild-type SHP2 and the "PTP-dead" C459E mutant were predominantly in the closed state in which the PTP active site is inaccessible, whereas the E76K and C459S mutants were in the open, active state. It also revealed that previously developed monobodies to the SH2 domains, ligands lacking a phospho-Tyr, weakly favored the open state. These results provide corroboration for a conformational equilibrium underlying allosteric regulation of SHP2, provide powerful tools for characterizing and controlling SHP2 functions, and inform drug discovery against SHP2.

A UHM-ULM interface with unusual structural features contributes to U2AF2 and SF3B1 association for pre-mRNA splicing.

During spliceosome assembly, the 3' splice site is recognized by sequential U2AF2 complexes, first with Splicing Factor 1 (SF1) and second by the SF3B1 subunit of the U2 small nuclear ribonuclear protein particle. The U2AF2-SF1 interface is well characterized, comprising a U2AF homology motif (UHM) of U2AF2 bound to a U2AF ligand motif (ULM) of SF1. However, the structure of the U2AF2-SF3B1 interface and its importance for pre-mRNA splicing are unknown. To address this knowledge gap, we determined the crystal structure of the U2AF2 UHM bound to a SF3B1 ULM site at 1.8-Å resolution. We discovered a distinctive trajectory of the SF3B1 ULM across the U2AF2 UHM surface, which differs from prior UHM/ULM structures and is expected to modulate the orientations of the full-length proteins. We established that the binding affinity of the U2AF2 UHM for the cocrystallized SF3B1 ULM rivals that of a nearly full-length U2AF2 protein for an N-terminal SF3B1 region. An additional SF3B6 subunit had no detectable effect on the U2AF2-SF3B1 binding affinities. We further showed that key residues at the U2AF2 UHM-SF3B1 ULM interface contribute to coimmunoprecipitation of the splicing factors. Moreover, disrupting the U2AF2-SF3B1 interface changed splicing of representative human transcripts. From analysis of genome-wide data, we found that many of the splice sites coregulated by U2AF2 and SF3B1 differ from those coregulated by U2AF2 and SF1. Taken together, these findings support distinct structural and functional roles for the U2AF2-SF1 and U2AF2-SF3B1 complexes during the pre-mRNA splicing process.

Pre-mRNA splicing factor U2AF2 recognizes distinct conformations of nucleotide variants at the center of the pre-mRNA splice site signal.

The essential pre-mRNA splicing factor U2AF2 (also called U2AF65) identifies polypyrimidine (Py) tract signals of nascent transcripts, despite length and sequence variations. Previous studies have shown that the U2AF2 RNA recognition motifs (RRM1 and RRM2) preferentially bind uridine-rich RNAs. Nonetheless, the specificity of the RRM1/RRM2 interface for the central Py tract nucleotide has yet to be investigated. We addressed this question by determining crystal structures of U2AF2 bound to a cytidine, guanosine, or adenosine at the central position of the Py tract, and compared U2AF2-bound uridine structures. Local movements of the RNA site accommodated the different nucleotides, whereas the polypeptide backbone remained similar among the structures. Accordingly, molecular dynamics simulations revealed flexible conformations of the central, U2AF2-bound nucleotide. The RNA binding affinities and splicing efficiencies of structure-guided mutants demonstrated that U2AF2 tolerates nucleotide substitutions at the central position of the Py tract. Moreover, enhanced UV-crosslinking and immunoprecipitation of endogenous U2AF2 in human erythroleukemia cells showed uridine-sensitive binding sites, with lower sequence conservation at the central nucleotide positions of otherwise uridine-rich, U2AF2-bound splice sites. Altogether, these results highlight the importance of RNA flexibility for protein recognition and take a step towards relating splice site motifs to pre-mRNA splicing efficiencies.

Representative cancer-associated U2AF2 mutations alter RNA interactions and splicing.

High-throughput sequencing of hematologic malignancies and other cancers has revealed recurrent mis-sense mutations of genes encoding pre-mRNA splicing factors. The essential splicing factor U2AF2 recognizes a polypyrimidine-tract splice-site signal and initiates spliceosome assembly. Here, we investigate representative, acquired U2AF2 mutations, namely N196K or G301D amino acid substitutions associated with leukemia or solid tumors, respectively. We determined crystal structures of the wild-type (WT) compared with N196K- or G301D-substituted U2AF2 proteins, each bound to a prototypical AdML polypyrimidine tract, at 1.5, 1.4, or 1.7 Å resolutions. The N196K residue appears to stabilize the open conformation of U2AF2 with an inter-RNA recognition motif hydrogen bond, in agreement with an increased apparent RNA-binding affinity of the N196K-substituted protein. The G301D residue remains in a similar position as the WT residue, where unfavorable proximity to the RNA phosphodiester could explain the decreased RNA-binding affinity of the G301D-substituted protein. We found that expression of the G301D-substituted U2AF2 protein reduces splicing of a minigene transcript carrying prototypical splice sites. We further show that expression of either N196K- or G301D-substituted U2AF2 can subtly alter splicing of representative endogenous transcripts, despite the presence of endogenous, WT U2AF2 such as would be present in cancer cells. Altogether, our results demonstrate that acquired U2AF2 mutations such as N196K and G301D are capable of dysregulating gene expression for neoplastic transformation.

Cancer-Associated Mutations Mapped on High-Resolution Structures of the U2AF2 RNA Recognition Motifs.

Acquired point mutations of pre-mRNA splicing factors recur among cancers, leukemias, and related neoplasms. Several studies have established that somatic mutations of a U2AF1 subunit, which normally recognizes 3' splice site junctions, recur among myelodysplastic syndromes. The U2AF2 splicing factor recognizes polypyrimidine signals that precede most 3' splice sites as a heterodimer with U2AF1. In contrast with those of the well-studied U2AF1 subunit, descriptions of cancer-relevant U2AF2 mutations and their structural relationships are lacking. Here, we survey databases of cancer-associated mutations and identify recurring missense mutations in the U2AF2 gene. We determine ultra-high-resolution structures of the U2AF2 RNA recognition motifs (RRM1 and RRM2) at 1.1 Å resolution and map the structural locations of the mutated U2AF2 residues. Comparison with prior, lower-resolution structures of the tandem U2AF2 RRMs in the RNA-bound and apo states reveals clusters of cancer-associated mutations at the U2AF2 RRM-RNA or apo-RRM1-RRM2 interfaces. Although the role of U2AF2 mutations in malignant transformation remains uncertain, our results show that cancer-associated mutations correlate with functionally important surfaces of the U2AF2 splicing factor.

Hydra actinoporin-like toxin-1, an unusual hemolysin from the nematocyst venom of Hydra magnipapillata which belongs to an extended gene family.

Cnidarians rely on their nematocysts and the venom injected through these unique weaponry systems to catch prey and protect themselves from predators. The development and physiology of the nematocysts of Hydra magnipapillata, a classic model organism, have been intensively studied, yet the composition and biochemical activity of their venom components are mostly unknown. Here, we show that hydra actinoporin-like toxins (HALTs), which have previously been associated with Hydra nematocysts, belong to a multigene family comprising six genes, which have diverged from a single common ancestor. All six genes are expressed in a population of Hydra magnipapillata. When expressed recombinantly, HALT-1 (Δ-HYTX-Hma1a), an actinoporin-like protein found in the stenoteles (the main penetrating nematocysts used in prey capture), reveals hemolytic activity, albeit about two-thirds lower than that of the anemone actinoporin equinatoxin II (EqTII, Δ-AITX-Aeq1a). HALT-1 also differs from EqTII in the size of its pores, and likely does not utilize sphingomyelin as a membrane receptor. We describe features of the HALT-1 sequence which may contribute to this difference in activity, and speculate on the role of this unusual family of pore-forming toxins in the ecology of Hydra.

Seasonal mesophotic coral bleaching of Stylophora pistillata in the Northern Red Sea.

Coral bleaching occurs when environmental stress induces breakdown of the coral-algae symbiosis and the host initiates algae expulsion. Two types of coral bleaching had been thoroughly discussed in the scientific literature; the first is primarily associated with mass coral bleaching events; the second is a seasonal loss of algae and/or pigments. Here, we describe a phenomenon that has been witnessed for repeated summers in the mesophotic zone (40-63 m) in the northern Red Sea: seasonal bleaching and recovery of several hermatypic coral species. In this study, we followed the recurring bleaching process of the common coral Stylophora pistillata. Bleaching occurred from April to September with a 66% decline in chlorophyll a concentration, while recovery began in October. Using aquarium and transplantation experiments, we explored environmental factors such as temperature, photon flux density and heterotrophic food availability. Our experiments and observations did not yield one single factor, alone, responsible for the seasonal bleaching. The dinoflagellate symbionts (of the genus Symbiodinium) in shallow (5 m) Stylophora pistillata were found to have a net photosynthetic rate of 56.98-92.19 µmol O2 cm(-2) day(-1). However, those from mesophotic depth (60 m) during months when they are not bleached are net consumers of oxygen having a net photosynthetic rate between -12.86 - (-10.24) µmol O2 cm(-2) day(-1). But during months when these mesophotic corals are partially-bleached, they yielded higher net production, between -2.83-0.76 µmol O2 cm(-2) day(-1). This study opens research questions as to why mesophotic zooxanthellae are more successfully meeting the corals metabolic requirements when Chl a concentration decreases by over 60% during summer and early fall.