On the use of the term "real risk".

The term "real risk" and variations of this term are commonly used in everyday speech and writing, and in the scientific literature. There are mainly two types of use: i) in statements about what the real risk related to an activity is and ii) in statements about the risk related to an activity being real. The former type of use has been extensively discussed in the literature, whereas the latter type has received less attention. In the present study, we review both types of use and analyze and discuss potential meanings of type ii) statements. We conclude that it is reasonable to interpret a statement about the risk being real as reflecting a judgement that there is some risk and that the knowledge supporting this statement is relatively strong. However, such a statement does not convey whether the risk is small or large and needs to be supplemented by a characterization of the risk.

A risk science perspective on vaccines.

Vaccines can be seen as one of the greatest successes in modern medicine. Good examples are the vaccines against smallpox, polio, and measles. Unfortunately, vaccines can have side effects, but the risks are considered by the health authorities and experts to be small compared to their benefits. Nevertheless, there are many who are skeptical of vaccination, something which has been very clearly demonstrated in relation to the COVID-19 disease. Risk is the key concept when evaluating a vaccine, in relation to both its ability to protect against the disease and its side effects. However, risk is a challenging concept to measure, which makes communication about vaccines' performance and side effects difficult. The present article aims at providing new insights into vaccine risks-the understanding, perception, communication, and handling of them-by adopting what is here referred to as a contemporary risk science perspective. This perspective clarifies the relationships between the risk concept and terms like uncertainty, knowledge, and probability. The skepticism toward vaccines is multifaceted, and influenced by concerns that extend beyond the effectiveness and safety of the vaccines. However, by clarifying the relationships between key concepts of risk, particularly how uncertainty affects risk and its characterization, we can improve our understanding of this issue.