Correction to: Do Words Matter? Stigmatizing Language and the Transmission of Bias in the Medical Record.

In the HTML version of this paper, Ms. Goddu was incorrectly listed. The correct citation should be AP Goddu. Exposure to the stigmatizing language note was associated with more negative attitudes towards the patient (20.3 stigmatizing vs. 25.1 neutral, p < 0.001). Reading the stigmatizing language note was associated with less aggressive management of the patient's pain (4.7 stigmatizing vs. 5.3 neutral, p < 0.001).

A story of change: The influence of narrative on African-Americans with diabetes.

OBJECTIVE: To understand if narratives can be effective tools for diabetes empowerment, from the perspective of African-American participants in a program that improved diabetes self-efficacy and self-management. METHODS: In-depth interviews and focus groups were conducted with program graduates. Participants were asked to comment on the program's film, storytelling, and role-play, and whether those narratives had contributed to their diabetes behavior change. An iterative process of coding, analyzing, and summarizing transcripts was completed using the framework approach. RESULTS: African-American adults (n=36) with diabetes reported that narratives positively influenced the diabetes behavior change they had experienced by improving their attitudes/beliefs while increasing their knowledge/skills. The social proliferation of narrative - discussing stories, rehearsing their messages with role-play, and building social support through storytelling - was reported as especially influential. CONCLUSION: Utilizing narratives in group settings may facilitate health behavior change, particularly in minority communities with traditions of storytelling. Theoretical models explaining narrative's effect on behavior change should consider the social context of narratives. PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS: Narratives may be promising tools to promote diabetes empowerment. Interventions using narratives may be more effective if they include group time to discuss and rehearse the stories presented, and if they foster an environment conducive to social support among participants.

Food Rx: a community-university partnership to prescribe healthy eating on the South Side of Chicago.

Patients living with diabetes in underserved communities face significant challenges to healthy eating. To support them, we need interventions that integrate community resources into the healthcare setting. A "prescription" for healthy food may be a promising platform for such a community-linked intervention: it can promote behavior change, provide nutrition education, include financial incentives, and connect patients to local resources. We describe Food Rx, a food prescription collaboratively developed by a university research team, Walgreens, a local farmers market, and six health centers on the South Side of Chicago. We share preliminary lessons learned from implementation, highlighting how each stakeholder (university, community partners, and clinics) contributed to this multifaceted effort while meeting research standards, organizational priorities, and clinic workflow demands. Although implementation is in early stages, Food Rx shows promise as a model for integrating community and healthcare resources to support the health of underserved patients.

Expanding and sustaining integrated health care-community efforts to reduce diabetes disparities.

To reduce racial and ethnic disparities in diabetes care and outcomes, it is critical to integrate health care and community approaches. However, little work describes how to expand and sustain such partnerships and initiatives. We outline our experience creating and growing an initiative to improve diabetes care and outcomes in the predominantly African American South Side of Chicago. Our project involves patient education and activation, a quality improvement collaborative with six clinics, provider education, and community partnerships. We aligned our project with the needs and goals of community residents and organizations, the mission and strategic plan of our academic medical center, various strengths and resources in Chicago, and the changing health care marketplace. We use the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation Finding Answers: Disparities Research for Change conceptual model and the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research to elucidate how we expanded and sustained our project within a shifting environment. We recommend taking action to integrate health care with community projects, being inclusive, building partnerships, working with the media, and understanding vital historical, political, and economic contexts.

"I Kept Coming for the Love": Enhancing the Retention of Urban African Americans in Diabetes Education.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to investigate how retention strategies employed by the Diabetes Empowerment Program (DEP) contributed to retention. METHODS: An experienced moderator conducted in-depth interviews (n = 7) and 4 focus groups (n = 29) with former DEP participants. Interviews were recorded, transcribed, and coded using iteratively modified coding guidelines. Results were analyzed using Atlas.ti 4.2 software. RESULTS: Participants were African American and predominantly female, low income, and with more than 1 diabetes complication. Key retention themes included: (1) educator characteristics and interpersonal skills ("The warmth of the staff . . . kept me coming back for more."), (2) accessible information ("I didn't know anything about diabetes [before]. I was just given the medicine."), (3) social support ("I realized I wasn't the only one who has diabetes."), (4) the use of narrative ("It's enlightening to talk about [my diabetes]."), and (5) the African American helping tradition ("I went not just for myself but for my husband."). CONCLUSIONS: While many interventions focus on costly logistics and incentives to retain at-risk participants, study findings suggest that utilizing culturally tailored curricula and emphasizing interpersonal skills and social support may be more effective strategies to retain low-income African Americans in diabetes education programs.

Thirty years of disparities intervention research: what are we doing to close racial and ethnic gaps in health care?

BACKGROUND: A systematic scan of the disparities intervention literature will allow researchers, providers, and policymakers to understand which interventions are being evaluated to improve minority health and which areas require further research. METHODS: We systematically categorized 391 disparities intervention articles published between 1979 and 2011, covering 11 diseases. We developed a taxonomy of disparities interventions using qualitative theme analysis. We identified the tactic, or what was done to intervene; the strategy, or a group of tactics with common characteristics; and the level, or who was targeted by the effort. RESULTS: The taxonomy included 44 tactics, 9 strategies, and 6 levels. Delivering education and training was the most common strategy (37%). Within education and training, the most common tactics were education about disease (14%) and self-management (11%), whereas communication skills training (3%) and decision-making aids (1%) were less frequent. The strategy of actively engaging the community through tactics such as community health workers and outreach efforts accounted for 6.5% of tactics. Interventions most commonly targeted patients (50%) and community members who were not established patients of the intervening organization (32%). Interventions targeting providers (7%), the microsystem (immediate care team) (9%), organizations (3%), and policies (0.1%) were less common. CONCLUSIONS: Disparities researchers have predominantly focused on the patient as the target for change; future research should also investigate how to improve the system that serves minority patients. Areas for further study include interventions that engage the community, educational interventions that address communication barriers, and the impact of policy reform on disparities in care.

A roadmap and best practices for organizations to reduce racial and ethnic disparities in health care.

Over the past decade, researchers have shifted their focus from documenting health care disparities to identifying solutions to close the gap in care. Finding Answers: Disparities Research for Change, a national program of the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, is charged with identifying promising interventions to reduce disparities. Based on our work conducting systematic reviews of the literature, evaluating promising practices, and providing technical assistance to health care organizations, we present a roadmap for reducing racial and ethnic disparities in care. The roadmap outlines a dynamic process in which individual interventions are just one part. It highlights that organizations and providers need to take responsibility for reducing disparities, establish a general infrastructure and culture to improve quality, and integrate targeted disparities interventions into quality improvement efforts. Additionally, we summarize the major lessons learned through the Finding Answers program. We share best practices for implementing disparities interventions and synthesize cross-cutting themes from 12 systematic reviews of the literature. Our research shows that promising interventions frequently are culturally tailored to meet patients' needs, employ multidisciplinary teams of care providers, and target multiple leverage points along a patient's pathway of care. Health education that uses interactive techniques to deliver skills training appears to be more effective than traditional didactic approaches. Furthermore, patient navigation and engaging family and community members in the health care process may improve outcomes for minority patients. We anticipate that the roadmap and best practices will be useful for organizations, policymakers, and researchers striving to provide high-quality equitable care.

Early lessons from an initiative on Chicago's South Side to reduce disparities in diabetes care and outcomes.

Interventions to improve health outcomes among patients with diabetes, especially racial or ethnic minorities, must address the multiple factors that make this disease so pernicious. We describe an intervention on the South Side of Chicago-a largely low-income, African American community-that integrates the strengths of health systems, patients, and communities to reduce disparities in diabetes care and outcomes. We report preliminary findings, such as improved diabetes care and diabetes control, and we discuss lessons learned to date. Our initiative neatly aligns with, and can inform the implementation of, the accountable care organization-a delivery system reform in which groups of providers take responsibility for improving the health of a defined population.

Using mobile health to support the chronic care model: developing an institutional initiative.

Background. Self-management support and team-based care are essential elements of the Chronic Care Model but are often limited by staff availability and reimbursement. Mobile phones are a promising platform for improving chronic care but there are few examples of successful health system implementation. Program Development. An iterative process of program design was built upon a pilot study and engaged multiple institutional stakeholders. Patients identified having a "human face" to the pilot program as essential. Stakeholders recognized the need to integrate the program with primary and specialty care but voiced concerns about competing demands on clinician time. Program Description. Nurse administrators at a university-affiliated health plan use automated text messaging to provide personalized self-management support for member patients with diabetes and facilitate care coordination with the primary care team. For example, when a patient texts a request to meet with a dietitian, a nurse-administrator coordinates with the primary care team to provide a referral. Conclusion. Our innovative program enables the existing health system to support a de novo care management program by leveraging mobile technology. The program supports self-management and team-based care in a way that we believe engages patients yet meets the limited availability of providers and needs of health plan administrators.