Assessment of differentially methylated loci in individuals with end-stage kidney disease attributed to diabetic kidney disease: an exploratory study.

BACKGROUND: A subset of individuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) are predisposed to developing diabetic kidney disease (DKD), the most common cause globally of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD). Emerging evidence suggests epigenetic changes in DNA methylation may have a causal role in both T1DM and DKD. The aim of this exploratory investigation was to assess differences in blood-derived DNA methylation patterns between individuals with T1DM-ESKD and individuals with long-duration T1DM but no evidence of kidney disease upon repeated testing to identify potential blood-based biomarkers. Blood-derived DNA from individuals (107 cases, 253 controls and 14 experimental controls) were bisulphite treated before DNA methylation patterns from both groups were generated and analysed using Illumina's Infinium MethylationEPIC BeadChip arrays (n = 862,927 sites). Differentially methylated CpG sites (dmCpGs) were identified (false discovery rate adjusted p ≤ × 10-8 and fold change ± 2) by comparing methylation levels between ESKD cases and T1DM controls at single site resolution. Gene annotation and functionality was investigated to enrich and rank methylated regions associated with ESKD in T1DM. RESULTS: Top-ranked genes within which several dmCpGs were located and supported by functional data with methylation look-ups in other cohorts include: AFF3, ARID5B, CUX1, ELMO1, FKBP5, HDAC4, ITGAL, LY9, PIM1, RUNX3, SEPTIN9 and UPF3A. Top-ranked enrichment pathways included pathways in cancer, TGF-ß signalling and Th17 cell differentiation. CONCLUSIONS: Epigenetic alterations provide a dynamic link between an individual's genetic background and their environmental exposures. This robust evaluation of DNA methylation in carefully phenotyped individuals has identified biomarkers associated with ESKD, revealing several genes and implicated key pathways associated with ESKD in individuals with T1DM.

Validating the association between plasma tumour necrosis factor receptor 1 levels and the presence of renal injury and functional decline in patients with Type 2 diabetes.

AIMS: Elevated plasma soluble tumour necrosis factor receptor 1 (TNFR1) predicts long-term progression of chronic kidney disease. We investigated the association between elevated TNFR1 and the presence of renal disease in patients with Type 2 diabetes mellitus registering a haemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) >48mmol/mol despite medical therapy. METHODS: Using sensitivity, specificity and regression analyses we interrogated the association between plasma TNFR1 and presence of chronic kidney disease as assessed by the presence of microalbuminuria and/or an estimated glomerular filtration rate of less than 60ml/min/1.73m2 (stages 3-5 chronic kidney disease). The association of TNFR1 with C-reactive protein and leptin-adiponectin ratio as plasma markers of systemic inflammation and adipose stress respectively was also investigated. RESULTS: Upper quartile TNFR1 is independently associated with elevated urinary albumin-creatinine ratios, reductions in eGFR and strongly predicts the presence of stages 3-5 chronic kidney disease in regression modelling. Elevated TNFR1 levels are associated with increased plasma C-reactive protein and augmented leptin-adiponectin ratio. CONCLUSIONS: Our study confirms plasma TNFR1 as a surrogate of renal structural and functional impairment in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Association of TNFR1 with markers of systemic inflammation and adipose stress indicates that TNFR1 may be a biomarker of these processes as components of the pathogenesis of diabetic kidney disease.

Lipoxins: update and impact of endogenous pro-resolution lipid mediators.

Lipoxins (LXs) are endogenously produced eicosanoids that are typically generated by transcellular biosynthesis. These trihydroxytetraene-containing lipid mediators and their stable synthetic analogues possess a wide spectrum of anti-inflammatory and pro-resolution bioactions both in vitro and in vivo. More recently, LXs have emerged as potential anti-fibrotic mediators that may influence pro-fibrotic cytokines and matrix-associated gene expression in response to platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). Here we review the biosynthesis, metabolism and bioactions of LXs and LX analogues and their therapeutic potential.

Connective tissue growth factor/CCN2 stimulates actin disassembly through Akt/protein kinase B-mediated phosphorylation and cytoplasmic translocation of p27(Kip-1).

Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF/CCN2) is a 38-kDa secreted protein, a prototypic member of the CCN family, which is up-regulated in many diseases, including atherosclerosis, pulmonary fibrosis, and diabetic nephropathy. We previously showed that CTGF can cause actin disassembly with concurrent down-regulation of the small GTPase Rho A and proposed an integrated signaling network connecting focal adhesion dissolution and actin disassembly with cell polarization and migration. Here, we further delineate the role of CTGF in cell migration and actin disassembly in human mesangial cells, a primary target in the development of renal glomerulosclerosis. The functional response of mesangial cells to treatment with CTGF was associated with the phosphorylation of Akt/protein kinase B (PKB) and resultant phosphorylation of a number of Akt/PKB substrates. Two of these substrates were identified as FKHR and p27(Kip-1). CTGF stimulated the phosphorylation and cytoplasmic translocation of p27(Kip-1) on serine 10. Addition of the PI-3 kinase inhibitor LY294002 abrogated this response; moreover, addition of the Akt/PKB inhibitor interleukin (IL)-6-hydroxymethyl-chiro-inositol-2(R)-2-methyl-3-O-octadecylcarbonate prevented p27(Kip-1) phosphorylation in response to CTGF. Immunocytochemistry revealed that serine 10 phosphorylated p27(Kip-1) colocalized with the ends of actin filaments in cells treated with CTGF. Further investigation of other Akt/PKB sites on p27(Kip-1), revealed that phosphorylation on threonine 157 was necessary for CTGF mediated p27(Kip-1) cytoplasmic localization; mutation of the threonine 157 site prevented cytoplasmic localization, protected against actin disassembly and inhibited cell migration. CTGF also stimulated an increased association between Rho A and p27(Kip-1). Interestingly, this resulted in an increase in phosphorylation of LIM kinase and subsequent phosphorylation of cofilin, suggesting that CTGF mediated p27(Kip-1) activation results in uncoupling of the Rho A/LIM kinase/cofilin pathway. Confirming the central role of Akt/PKB, CTGF-stimulated actin depolymerization only in wild-type mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) compared to Akt-1/3 (PKB alpha/gamma) knockout MEFs. These data reveal important mechanistic insights into how CTGF may contribute to mesangial cell dysfunction in the diabetic milieu and sheds new light on the proposed role of p27(Kip-1) as a mediator of actin rearrangement.

Gremlin gene expression in bovine retinal pericytes exposed to elevated glucose.

AIM: To assess the influence of high extracellular glucose on the expression of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) antagonist, gremlin, in cultured bovine retinal pericytes (BRPC). METHODS: BRPC were cultured under conditions of 5 mM and 30 mM d-glucose for 7 days and total RNA was isolated. Gremlin mRNA levels were correlated, by RT-PCR, with other genes implicated in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy and the signalling pathways in high glucose induced gremlin expression were probed using physiological inhibitors. Gremlin expression was also examined in the retina of streptozotocin induced diabetic mice. RESULTS: High glucose stimulated a striking increase in BRPC gremlin mRNA levels in parallel with increases in mRNA for the growth factors vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), transforming growth factor beta (TGFbeta), and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and changes in other genes including fibronectin and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1). High glucose triggered gremlin expression was modulated by anti-TGFbeta antibody, by the uncoupler of oxidative phosphorylation, CCCP, and by inhibition of MAP-kinase (MAPK) activation. Striking gremlin expression was observed in the outer retina of diabetic mice and also at the level of the vascular wall. CONCLUSIONS: Gremlin gene expression is induced in BRPC in response to elevated glucose and in the retina of the streptozotocin induced diabetic mouse. Its expression is modulated by hyperglycaemic induction of the MAPK, reactive oxygen species, and TGFbeta pathways, all of which are reported to have a role in diabetic fibrotic disease. This implicates a role for gremlin in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy.

Connective tissue growth factor [CTGF]/CCN2 stimulates mesangial cell migration through integrated dissolution of focal adhesion complexes and activation of cell polarization.

Connective tissue growth factor [CTGF]/CCN2 is a prototypic member of the CCN family of regulatory proteins. CTGF expression is up-regulated in a number of fibrotic diseases, including diabetic nephropathy, where it is believed to act as a downstream mediator of TGF-beta function; however, the exact mechanisms whereby CTGF mediates its effects remain unclear. Here, we describe the role of CTGF in cell migration and actin disassembly in human mesangial cells, a primary target in the development of renal glomerulosclerosis. The addition of CTGF to primary mesangial cells induced cell migration and cytoskeletal rearrangement but had no effect on cell proliferation. Cytoskeletal rearrangement was associated with a loss of focal adhesions, involving tyrosine dephosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase and paxillin, increased activity of the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2, with a concomitant decrease in RhoA and Rac1 activity. Conversely, Cdc42 activity was increased by CTGF. These functional responses were associated with the phosphorylation and translocation of protein kinase C-zeta to the leading edge of migrating cells. Inhibition of CTGF-induced protein kinase C-zeta activity with a myristolated PKC-zeta inhibitor prevented cell migration. Moreover, transient transfection of human mesangial cells with a PKC-zeta kinase inactive mutant (dominant negative) expression vector also led to a decrease in CTGF-induced migration compared with wild-type. Furthermore, CTGF stimulated phosphorylation and activation of GSK-3beta. These data highlight for the first time an integrated mechanism whereby CTGF regulates cell migration through facilitative actin cytoskeleton disassembly, which is mediated by dephosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase and paxillin, loss of RhoA activity, activation of Cdc42, and phosphorylation of PKC-zeta and GSK-3beta. These changes indicate that the initial stages of CTGF mediated mesangial cell migration are similar to those involved in the process of cell polarization. These findings begin to shed mechanistic light on the renal diabetic milieu, where increased CTGF expression in the glomerulus contributes to cellular dysfunction.

Lipoxin A(4) and aspirin-triggered 15-epi-lipoxin A(4) antagonize TNF-alpha-stimulated neutrophil-enterocyte interactions in vitro and attenuate TNF-alpha-induced chemokine release and colonocyte apoptosis in human intestinal mucosa ex vivo.

Lipoxins (LXs) are lipoxygenase-derived eicosanoids and putative endogenous braking signals for inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract and other organs. Aspirin triggers the production of 15-epimers during cell-cell interaction in a cytokine-primed milieu, and aspirin-triggered 15-epi-5(S),6(R),15(S)-trihydroxy-7,9,13-trans-11-cis-eicosatetraenoic acid (15-epi-LXA(4)) may contribute to the bioactivity profile of this prototype nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug in vivo. We determined the effect of LXA(4), 15-(R/S)-methyl-11,12-dehydro-LXA(4) methyl ester (15-(R/S)-methyl-LXA(4)), and stable analogs of LXA(4) on TNF-alpha-stimulated neutrophil-enterocyte interaction in vitro and TNF-alpha-stimulated chemokine release, changes in mucosal architecture, and enterocyte apoptosis in cytokine-activated intact human colonic mucosa ex vivo. LXA(4), 15-(R/S)-epi-LXA(4), and 16-phenoxy-11,12-dehydro-17,18,19,20-tetranor-LXA(4) methyl ester (16-phenoxy-LXA(4)) inhibited TNF-alpha-stimulated neutrophil adherence to epithelial monolayers at nanomolar concentrations. In parallel experiments involving human colonic mucosa ex vivo, LXA(4)potently attenuated TNF-alpha-stimulated release of the C-X-C chemokine IL-8, and the C-C chemokines monocyte-chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) and RANTES. Exposure of strips of normal human colonic mucosa to TNF-alpha induced disruption of mucosa architecture and enhanced colonocyte apoptosis via a caspase-3-independent mechanism. Prior exposure of the mucosa strips to 15-(R/S)-methyl-LXA(4) attenuated TNF-alpha-stimulated colonocyte apoptosis and protected the mucosa against TNF-alpha-induced mucosal damage. In aggregate, our data demonstrate that lipoxins and aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LXA(4) are potent antagonists of TNF-alpha-mediated neutrophil-enterocyte interactions in vitro, attenuate TNF-alpha-triggered chemokine release and colonocyte apoptosis, and are protective against TNF-alpha-induced morphological disruption in human colonic strips ex vivo. Our observations further expand the anti-inflammatory profile of these lipoxygenase-derived eicosanoids and suggest new therapeutic approaches for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease.

Lipoxins: revelations on resolution.

Lipoxins (LXs) are endogenously produced eicosanoids typically generated during cell-cell interactions. In this article, the compelling evidence from in vitro and in vivo model systems that LXs actively promote the resolution of inflammation is reviewed. Of particular interest are indications that stable synthetic analogues of LXs and aspirin-triggered 15-epi-LXs can mimic many of the desirable anti-inflammatory, "pro-resolution" actions of native LXs. Given the enhanced stability and efficacy of these compounds a role as novel anti-inflammatory therapeutics is proposed.

Connective tissue growth factor: an attractive therapeutic target in fibrotic renal disease.

Despite diverse initiating insults, glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis are pathological features common to most forms of progressive renal disease. Control of systemic hypertension and blockade of the renin-angiotensin system ameliorate the rate of progression of chronic renal disease; however they generally fail to completely arrest the scarring process. While the chain of events leading to scarring are still being defined, TGF-beta is a cytokine that plays a pivotal role in the pathogenesis of glomerulosclerosis and tubulointerstitial fibrosis [1]. Given the pleiotropic effects of TGF-beta, significant attention has focused on the potential of its downstream mediators as therapeutic targets. Connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) is a member of the CCN gene family, which includes CyR61 (cysteine rich 61), Nov (Nephroblastoma overexpressed) and the WISP family (for review see [2,3,4]). These immediate-early genes coordinate complex biologic processes during differentiation and tissue repair [5]. Increased expression of CTGF has been detected in experimental and human renal fibrosis where it correlates with glomerulosclerosis and the degree of tubulointerstitial fibrosis [6]. In these settings CTGF expression is regulated at least in part by TGF-beta. This review details the biology of CTGF with specific reference to its potential as a therapeutic target in renal fibrosis.

Gremlins, glomeruli and diabetic nephropathy.

There have been major advances in our understanding of the pathogenetic mechanisms of diabetic nephropathy in recent years. Of particular interest is the emerging paradigm of the role that developmentally important genes may play in this process, representing recapitulation of the ontogenic process. This review examines the potential pathophysiological involvement of one such developmental gene gremlin in diabetic nephropathy.

Influence of lipoxin A(4) and other lipoxygenase-derived eicosanoids on tissue factor expression.

Lipoxins (LX) are eicosanoids generated via transcellular biosynthetic routes during inflammation, hypersensitivity reaction, and after angioplasty. LXs are modulators of leukocyte trafficking and vascular tone. Their influence on the coagulation cascade has not been determined. In this study, we evaluated the influence of LXs on the expression of tissue factor (TF), a key regulator of coagulation. TF activity was measured in lysates of monocytes, human umbilical vein endothelial cells, and ECV304 cells using a one-stage clotting assay. LXA(4) stimulated TF activity in each cell type. The influence of LXA(4) on TF activity by ECV304 cells was studied further to explore the mechanism of induction of TF expression. LXA(4)-induced TF activity was dose dependent, cycloheximide sensitive, and associated with increased TF mRNA levels. Induction of TF activity was specific for LXA(4) and was not observed with LXB(4), the other major lipoxin generated by mammalian cells. Furthermore, ECV304 cell TF expression was not influenced by 15(R/S)-methyl-LXA(4) or 16-phenoxy-LXA(4), synthetic analogs of LXA(4) that activate the myeloid LXA(4) receptor, and was not modulated by SKF-104353, which blocks LXA(4) bioactivities transduced through the putative shared LXA(4)/LTD(4) receptor. LXA(4)-stimulated TF expression was blunted by pertussis toxin and by GF-109203X, an inhibitor of protein kinase C, and was not associated with degradation of IkappaBalpha. Our results establish that LXA(4) induces TF activity via cell signaling pathways with different structural and receptor requirements from those described for inhibition of leukocyte-endothelial cell interactions. They suggest a role for LXA(4) as a modulator of TF-related vascular events during inflammation and thrombosis.

Lipoxin A4 antagonizes the mitogenic effects of leukotriene D4 in human renal mesangial cells. Differential activation of MAP kinases through distinct receptors.

The lipoxygenase-derived eicosanoids leukotrienes and lipoxins are well defined regulators of hemeodynamics and leukocyte recruitment in inflammatory conditions. Here, we describe a novel bioaction of lipoxin A(4) (LXA(4)), namely inhibition of leukotriene D(4) (LTD(4))-induced human renal mesangial cell proliferation, and investigate the signal transduction mechanisms involved. LXA(4) blocked LTD(4)-stimulated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI 3-kinase) activity in parallel to inhibition of LTD(4)-induced mesangial cell proliferation. Screening of a human mesangial cell cDNA library revealed expression of the recently described cys-leukotriene(1)/LTD(4) receptor. LTD(4)-induced mesangial cell proliferation required both extracellular-related signal regulated kinase (erk) and PI 3-kinase activation and may involve platelet-derived growth factor receptor transactivation. LTD(4)-stimulated the MAP kinases erk and p38 via a pertussis toxin (PTX)-sensitive pathway dependent on PI 3-kinase and protein kinase C activation. On screening a cDNA library, mesangial cells were found to express the previously described LXA(4) receptor. In contrast to LTD(4), LXA(4) showed differential activation of erk and p38. LXA(4) activation of erk was insensitive to PTX and PI 3-kinase inhibition, whereas LXA(4) activation of p38 was sensitive to PTX and could be blocked by the LTD(4) receptor antagonist SKF 104353. These data suggest that LXA(4) stimulation of the MAP kinase superfamily involves two distinct receptors: one shared with LTD(4) and coupled to a PTX-sensitive G protein (G(i)) and a second coupled via an alternative G protein, such as G(q) or G(12), to erk activation. These data expand on the spectrum of LXA(4) bioactions within an inflammatory milieu.

IHG-2, a mesangial cell gene induced by high glucose, is human gremlin. Regulation by extracellular glucose concentration, cyclic mechanical strain, and transforming growth factor-beta1.

We used cloning in silico coupled with polymerase chain reaction to demonstrate that IHG-2 is part of the 3'-untranslated region of gremlin, a member of the DAN family of secreted proteins that antagonize the bioactivities of members of the transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta superfamily. Mesangial cell gremlin mRNA levels were induced by high glucose, cyclic mechanical strain, and TGF-beta1 in vitro, and gremlin mRNA levels were elevated in the renal cortex of rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy in vivo. gremlin expression was observed in parallel with induction of bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2), a target for gremlin in models of cell differentiation. Together these data indicate that (a) IHG-2 is gremlin, (b) gremlin is expressed in diabetic nephropathy in vivo, (c) both glycemic and mechanical strain stimulate mesangial cell gremlin expression in vitro, (d) high glucose induces gremlin, in part, through TGFbeta-mediated pathways, and (e) Gremlin is a potential endogenous antagonist of BMPs within a diabetic glomerular milieu.

Cutting edge: lipoxins rapidly stimulate nonphlogistic phagocytosis of apoptotic neutrophils by monocyte-derived macrophages.

Lipoxins (LX) are lipoxygenase-derived eicosanoids generated during inflammation. LX inhibit polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) chemotaxis and adhesion and are putative braking signals for PMN-mediated tissue injury. In this study, we report that LXA4 promotes another important step in the resolution phase of inflammation, namely, phagocytosis of apoptotic PMN by monocyte-derived macrophages (Mphi). LXA4 triggered rapid, concentration-dependent uptake of apoptotic PMN. This bioactivity was shared by stable synthetic LXA4 analogues (picomolar concentrations) but not by other eicosanoids tested. LXA4-triggered phagocytosis did not provoke IL-8 or monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 release. LXA4-induced phagocytosis was attenuated by anti-CD36, alphavbeta3, and CD18 mAbs. LXA4-triggered PMN uptake was inhibited by pertussis toxin and by 8-bromo-cAMP and was mimicked by Rp-cAMP, a protein kinase A inhibitor. LXA4 attenuated PGE2-stimulated protein kinase A activation in Mphi. These results suggest that LXA4 is an endogenous stimulus for PMN clearance during inflammation and provide a novel rationale for using stable synthetic analogues as anti-inflammatory compounds in vivo.

Lipoxins: novel anti-inflammatory therapeutics?

Lipoxins (LX) are endogenously produced eicosanoids that promote the resolution of inflammation. Here we review the accumulating evidence that LX act as potent modulators of leukocyte trafficking in model systems in vitro and in vivo. Of particular interest are indications that aspirin-triggered epi-LX and synthetic LX combine many of the desirable anti-inflammatory actions of LX with enhanced stability and bioavailability. Such synthetic analogs have potential as novel therapeutics. Furthermore, the bioactivities of the aspirin triggered LX may account for some of the well-documented prostaglandin-independent anti-inflammatory actions of aspirin.

Serum from hemodialysis patients inhibits basal and cytokine-stimulated tissue factor expression in vitro.

Hemorrhagic complications are common among hemodialysis (HD) patients. The mechanisms by which HD perturbs the coagulation cascade are still being defined. This study evaluated the influence of HD serum on cellular expression of tissue factor (TF), a procoagulant membrane-associated protein that is a pivotal regulator of blood coagulation. Serum was collected immediately before dialysis and 15, 30, and 180 min into HD using polysulfone membranes. Serum was then assessed for its ability to influence basal and cytokine-stimulated TF activity in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and ECV304 cells. Predialysis serum did not influence basal levels of TF activity. HD was associated with the appearance of a serum factor that suppressed basal TF activity (TF units/microg protein: predialysis serum 8.2 +/- 0.9; 180-min dialysis serum 4.9 +/- 0.6; P < 0.05) and TF activity induced by the cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNFalpha) (TF units/microg protein: TNFalpha alone 15.9 +/- 0.7; TNFalpha + 180-min dialysis serum 5.9 +/- 0.9; P < 0.01). This response was not mimicked by heparin, suggesting production of an endogenous inhibitor of TF activity during HD. Dialysis was associated with a striking increase in circulating levels of tissue factor pathway inhibitor (TFPI), a physiologic inhibitor of the TF/VIIa complex. The lack of temporal correlation between TFPI levels and suppression of TF activity, however, suggested the presence of additional TFPI independent pathway(s) for modulation of TF activity. Dialysis-related suppression of TF expression may contribute to hemorrhagic complications in HD patients.

Regulation of leukocyte trafficking by lipoxins.

Lipoxins are lipoxygenase interaction products formed by transcellular metabolism during host defence and inflammation. In model systems, lipoxins modulate polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMN) chemotaxis, adhesion molecule expression, inhibit PMN-endothelial cell adhesion, and attenuate cytokine release from epithelial cells. These observations raise the possibility that lipoxins are 'stop signals' for PMN-mediated tissue injury and promote the resolution of acute inflammation.

Suppression subtractive hybridization identifies high glucose levels as a stimulus for expression of connective tissue growth factor and other genes in human mesangial cells.

Accumulation of mesangial matrix is a pivotal event in the pathophysiology of diabetic nephropathy. The molecular triggers for matrix production are still being defined. Here, suppression subtractive hybridization identified 15 genes differentially induced when primary human mesangial cells are exposed to high glucose (30 mM versus 5 mM) in vitro. These genes included (a) known regulators of mesangial cell activation in diabetic nephropathy (fibronectin, caldesmon, thrombospondin, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1), (b) novel genes, and (c) known genes whose induction by high glucose has not been reported. Prominent among the latter were genes encoding cytoskeleton-associated proteins and connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), a modulator of fibroblast matrix production. In parallel experiments, elevated CTGF mRNA levels were demonstrated in glomeruli of rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy. Mannitol provoked less mesangial cell CTGF expression in vitro than high glucose, excluding hyperosmolality as the key stimulus. The addition of recombinant CTGF to cultured mesangial cells enhanced expression of extracellular matrix proteins. High glucose stimulated expression of transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-beta1), and addition of TGF-beta1 to mesangial cells triggered CTGF expression. CTGF expression induced by high glucose was partially suppressed by anti-TGF-beta1 antibody and by the protein kinase C inhibitor GF 109203X. Together, these data suggest that 1) high glucose stimulates mesangial CTGF expression by TGFbeta1-dependent and protein kinase C dependent pathways, and 2) CTGF may be a mediator of TGFbeta1-driven matrix production within a diabetic milieu.

Leukotrienes and lipoxins: lipoxygenase-derived modulators of leukocyte recruitment and vascular tone in glomerulonephritis.

With the gradual elucidation of the cellular and molecular events that underpin the inflammatory process, the pathogenetic complexities of glomerulonephritis are slowly being unravelled. Lipoxygenase-derived eicosanoids play important counter-regulatory roles within inflamed glomeruli. Leukotrienes, derived from the 5-lipoxygenase pathway, are potent stimuli for leukocyte infiltration, intrarenal vasoconstriction, and mesangial cell contraction in many forms of experimental glomerulonephritis and probably in human disease. The recruitment of 12- and 15-lipoxygenase pathways, particularly during cell-cell interactions, promotes the formation of lipoxins. The latter compounds antagonize many leukotriene effects, attenuate neutrophil recruitment, and are potential 'braking signals' within the inflammatory cascade that promote resolution of inflammation. The generation and metabolism of leukotrienes and lipoxins is regulated independently, and each family of eicosanoids mediates its biological activities through distinct cell surface receptors and signal transduction pathways. Leukotriene biosynthesis inhibitors and leukotriene receptor antagonists are protective in several experimental models of glomerulonephritis. Initial studies with lipoxins and synthetic lipoxin stable analogues suggest that it may be possible to harness this and other putative anti-inflammatory system for therapeutic gain [3,22,92].