Impact of cell-free DNA screening on parental knowledge of fetal sex and disorders of sex development.

OBJECTIVE: Discrepancies between cfDNA and ultrasound predicted fetal sex occur, possibly indicating disorders/differences of sex development (DSDs). Among expectant/recent parents, this study assessed cfDNA knowledge/use, fetal sex determination attitudes/behaviors, general knowledge of DSD, and possible psychological impact of discrepancy between fetal sex on cfDNA and ultrasound. METHOD: Parents were surveyed about fetal sex determination methods, knowledge of cfDNA and DSD, distress related to possible cfDNA inaccuracy. RESULTS: Of 916 respondents, 44% were aware of possible discrepancy between cfDNA and ultrasound, 22% were aware of DSD. 78% and 75% would be upset and worried, respectively, with results showing fetal sex discrepancy. Most (67%) revealed predicted fetal sex before delivery. 38% were offered cfDNA. Of those revealing fetal sex, 24% used cfDNA results, 71% ultrasound, and 7% both. cfDNA users were more frequently aware of possible discrepancy between cfDNA and ultrasound (76% vs 41%, P < .0001), but not of DSD (29% vs 23%, P = .29). CONCLUSION: Fetal sex determination is favored, and cfDNA is frequently used for predicting fetal chromosomal sex. Many parents are unaware of possible discrepancies between cfDNA and ultrasound, and potential for DSD. Most would be distressed by discordant results. Accurate counseling regarding limitations cfDNA for fetal sex determination is needed.

Genetic Counseling for Neurofibromatosis 1, Neurofibromatosis 2, and Schwannomatosis-Practice Resource of the National Society of Genetic Counselors.

The goal of this practice resource is to provide genetic counselors and other healthcare professionals with a resource to reference when providing genetic counseling services to individuals and families undergoing evaluation for neurofibromatosis (NF) or who have received a diagnosis of NF, including NF1, NF2, and schwannomatosis. This resource represents the opinions of a multi-center working group of Certified Genetic Counselors with experience in the care of individuals with NF, providing topics to be considered for the incorporation into a clinical genetic counseling session.

Evaluation and classification of severity for 176 genes on an expanded carrier screening panel.

BACKGROUND: Disease severity is important when considering genes for inclusion on reproductive expanded carrier screening (ECS) panels. We applied a validated and previously published algorithm that classifies diseases into four severity categories (mild, moderate, severe, and profound) to 176 genes screened by ECS. Disease traits defining severity categories in the algorithm were then mapped to four severity-related ECS panel design criteria cited by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG). METHODS: Eight genetic counselors (GCs) and four medical geneticists (MDs) applied the severity algorithm to subsets of 176 genes. MDs and GCs then determined by group consensus how each of these disease traits mapped to ACOG severity criteria, enabling determination of the number of ACOG severity criteria met by each gene. RESULTS: Upon consensus GC and MD application of the severity algorithm, 68 (39%) genes were classified as profound, 71 (40%) as severe, 36 (20%) as moderate, and one (1%) as mild. After mapping of disease traits to ACOG severity criteria, 170 out of 176 genes (96.6%) were found to meet at least one of the four criteria, 129 genes (73.3%) met at least two, 73 genes (41.5%) met at least three, and 17 genes (9.7%) met all four. CONCLUSION: This study classified the severity of a large set of Mendelian genes by collaborative clinical expert application of a trait-based algorithm. Further, it operationalized difficult to interpret ACOG severity criteria via mapping of disease traits, thereby promoting consistency of ACOG criteria interpretation.

Proximal Hypospadias-Isolated Genital Condition or Marker of More?

PURPOSE: The prevalence of endocrine/genetic anomalies in boys with proximal hypospadias is unknown. We describe an endocrine/genetic evaluation for boys with proximal hypospadias to determine who may have a difference/disorder of sex development and/or benefit from additional testing. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed boys with hypospadias seen at our hospital between January 2013 and October 2018. Those with proximal (penoscrotal, scrotal, perineal) hypospadias who presented before age 6 months and underwent endocrine/genetic testing were included. Demographics, test results, testicular examination at presentation, comorbidities and diagnoses were abstracted. RESULTS: A total of 1,789 boys with hypospadias were identified. Of 131 boys with proximal hypospadias all 60 who underwent endocrine/genetic evaluation were included. Most of these patients had bilateral palpable testes (52, 86%) that were fully descended (41, 68%). Associated anatomical anomalies were found in 53% of patients. All boys underwent endocrine testing, which was completely typical for a male infant in most (41, 68%). Common genetic tests included karyotyping (100%), microarray (38%) and multigene panel (13%). Genetic anomalies were found in 17 boys (28%), including 7 of 41 (17%) with bilateral descended testes and 10 of 19 (53%) with 1 or more undescended testes (p=0.01). Six of 8 boys with at least 1 nonpalpable testis had a genetic anomaly vs 11 of 52 with bilateral palpable testes (p=0.005). Differences/disorders of sex development were found in 9 patients (15%). CONCLUSIONS: Of 60 boys with proximal hypospadias 53% had nongenital anomalies, 28% had genetic anomalies and 15% had a difference/disorder of sex development. Although endocrine testing was clinically useful, genetic testing was most diagnostically revealing. Endocrine/genetic evaluation should be considered for boys with proximal hypospadias.

Turner Syndrome with Y Chromosome: Spontaneous Thelarche, Menarche, and Risk of Malignancy.

STUDY OBJECTIVE: Girls with Turner syndrome with Y-chromosome material (TS + Y) are assumed to have nonfunctional gonads with increased tumor risk, therefore prophylactic gonadectomy is recommended at diagnosis. In this study we aimed to determine rates of spontaneous thelarche (ST) and spontaneous menarche (SM), and prevalence of gonadal tumor and malignancy in girls with TS + Y, to further inform discussions about gonadectomy. DESIGN: Retrospective review of clinical and pathology data. SETTING: Multicenter study involving 4 United States children's hospitals. PARTICIPANTS: Patients included those with a genetically proven diagnosis of TS + Y and phenotypically female genitourinary exam. INTERVENTIONS: Demographic characteristics, pubertal development, and gonadal pathology data were abstracted from clinical records. Data for ST were analyzed for patients aged 13 years and older and SM for patients older than 15 years. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: ST, SM, prevalence of gonadal tumor, and malignancy. RESULTS: Forty-four patients met inclusion criteria. Nineteen patients were 13 years or older; 8/19 (42%) had ST and reached Tanner stages 2-4 and 2 (11%) had normal ovarian pathology. Nineteen patients were 15 years or older; 2/19 (11%) had SM. Thirty-seven patients underwent gonadectomy; 35 had available pathology results. Gonadoblastoma was identified in 35/7 patients (19%), 1 in situ germ cell neoplasia, and 1 dysgerminoma (3%). One patient with bilateral gonadoblastoma had ST and SM. CONCLUSION: In this multicenter cohort, 42% of girls with TS + Y entered puberty spontaneously and 11% had SM, supportive of gonadal function. Risk of tumor was similar to previous reports. To achieve informed decision-making, discussions about gonadectomy should incorporate potential for gonadal function and tumor risk.

Clinical spectrum of individuals with pathogenic NF1 missense variants affecting p.Met1149, p.Arg1276, and p.Lys1423: genotype-phenotype study in neurofibromatosis type 1.

We report 281 individuals carrying a pathogenic recurrent NF1 missense variant at p.Met1149, p.Arg1276, or p.Lys1423, representing three nontruncating NF1 hotspots in the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB) cohort, together identified in 1.8% of unrelated NF1 individuals. About 25% (95% confidence interval: 20.5-31.2%) of individuals heterozygous for a pathogenic NF1 p.Met1149, p.Arg1276, or p.Lys1423 missense variant had a Noonan-like phenotype, which is significantly more compared with the "classic" NF1-affected cohorts (all p < .0001). Furthermore, p.Arg1276 and p.Lys1423 pathogenic missense variants were associated with a high prevalence of cardiovascular abnormalities, including pulmonic stenosis (all p < .0001), while p.Arg1276 variants had a high prevalence of symptomatic spinal neurofibromas (p < .0001) compared with "classic" NF1-affected cohorts. However, p.Met1149-positive individuals had a mild phenotype, characterized mainly by pigmentary manifestations without externally visible plexiform neurofibromas, symptomatic spinal neurofibromas or symptomatic optic pathway gliomas. As up to 0.4% of unrelated individuals in the UAB cohort carries a p.Met1149 missense variant, this finding will contribute to more accurate stratification of a significant number of NF1 individuals. Although clinically relevant genotype-phenotype correlations are rare in NF1, each affecting only a small percentage of individuals, together they impact counseling and management of a significant number of the NF1 population.

Reproductive Endocrinologists' Utilization of Genetic Counselors for Oncofertility and Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) Treatment of BRCA1/2 Mutation Carriers.

Genetic counselors believe fertility preservation and preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) discussions to be a part of their role when counseling BRCA1/2 mutation-positive patients. This study is the first to explore reproductive endocrinologists' (REI) practices and attitudes regarding involvement of genetic counselors in the care of BRCA1/2 mutation carriers seeking fertility preservation and PGD. A survey was mailed to 1000 REIs from Reproductive Endocrinology & Infertility (SREI), an American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) affiliate group. A 14.5 % response rate was achieved; data was analyzed using SPSS software. The majority of participating REIs were found to recommend genetic counseling to cancer patients considering fertility preservation (82 %) and consult with a genetic counselor regarding PGD for hereditary cancer syndromes (92 %). Additionally, REIs consult genetic counselors regarding PGD patient counseling (88 %), genetic testing (78 %), and general genetics questions (66 %). Two areas genetic counselors may further aid REIs are: elicitation of family history, which is useful to determine fertility preservation and PGD intervention timing (32 % of REIs utilize a cancer family history to determine intervention timing); and, interpretation of variants of uncertain significance (VOUS) as cancer panel genetic testing becomes more common (36 % of REIs are unfamiliar with VOUS). Given our findings, the Oncofertility Consortium® created an online resource for genetic counselors focused on fertility preservation education and communication strategies.

Characterisation of mutations of the phosphoinositide-3-kinase regulatory subunit, PIK3R2, in perisylvian polymicrogyria: a next-generation sequencing study.

BACKGROUND: Bilateral perisylvian polymicrogyria (BPP), the most common form of regional polymicrogyria, causes the congenital bilateral perisylvian syndrome, featuring oromotor dysfunction, cognitive impairment, and epilepsy. The causes of BPP are heterogeneous, but only a few genetic causes have been reported. The aim of this study was to identify additional genetic causes of BPP and characterise their frequency in this population. METHODS: Children (aged ≤18 years) with polymicrogyria were enrolled into our research programme from July, 1980, to October, 2015, at two centres (Florence, Italy, and Seattle, WA, USA). We obtained samples (blood and saliva) throughout this period at both centres and did whole-exome sequencing on DNA from eight trios (two parents and one affected child) with BPP in 2014. After the identification of mosaic PIK3R2 mutations in two of these eight children, we performed targeted screening of PIK3R2 by two methods in a cohort of 118 children with BPP. First, we performed targeted sequencing of the entire PIK3R2 gene by single molecule molecular inversion probes (smMIPs) on 38 patients with BPP with normal to large head size. Second, we did amplicon sequencing of the recurrent PIK3R2 mutation (Gly373Arg) in 80 children with various types of polymicrogyria including BPP. One additional patient had clinical whole-exome sequencing done independently, and was included in this study because of the phenotypic similarity to our cohort. FINDINGS: We identified a mosaic mutation (Gly373Arg) in a regulatory subunit of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway, PIK3R2, in two children with BPP. Of the 38 patients with BPP and normal to large head size who underwent targeted next-generation sequencing by smMIPs, we identified constitutional and mosaic PIK3R2 mutations in 17 additional children. In parallel, one patient had the recurrent PIK3R2 mutation identified by clinical whole-exome sequencing. Seven of these 20 patients had BPP alone, and 13 had BPP in association with features of the megalencephaly-polymicrogyria-polydactyly-hydrocephalus (MPPH) syndrome. 19 patients had the same mutation (Gly373Arg), and one had a nearby missense mutation (Lys376Glu). Mutations were constitutional in 12 patients and mosaic in eight patients. In patients with mosaic mutations, we noted substantial variation in alternate (mutant) allele levels, ranging from ten (3%) of 377 reads to 39 (37%) of 106 reads, equivalent to 5-73% of cells analysed. Levels of mosaicism varied from undetectable to 37 (17%) of 216 reads in blood-derived DNA compared with 2030 (29%) of 6889 reads to 275 (43%) of 634 reads in saliva-derived DNA. INTERPRETATION: Constitutional and mosaic mutations in the PIK3R2 gene are associated with developmental brain disorders ranging from BPP with a normal head size to the MPPH syndrome. The phenotypic variability and low-level mosaicism, which challenge conventional molecular methods, have important implications for genetic testing and counselling. FUNDING: US National Institutes of Health.