MultiTEP platform-based DNA vaccines for alpha-synucleinopathies: preclinical evaluation of immunogenicity and therapeutic potency.

We have previously demonstrated that anti-beta amyloid DNA vaccine (AV-1959D) based on our proprietary MultiTEP platform technology is extremely immunogenic in mice, rabbits, and monkeys. Importantly, MultiTEP platform enables development of vaccines targeting pathological molecules involved in various neurodegenerative disorders. Taking advantage of the universality of MultiTEP platform, we developed DNA vaccines targeting 3 B-cell epitopes (amino acids [aa]85-99, aa109-126, and aa126-140) of human alpha-synuclein (hα-Syn) separately or all 3 epitopes simultaneously. All 4 DNA vaccines (1) generate high titers of anti-hα-Syn antibodies and (2) induce robust MultiTEP-specific T-helper cell responses without activation of potentially detrimental autoreactive anti-hα-Syn T-helper cells. Generated antibodies recognize misfolded hα-Syn produced by neuroblastoma cells, hα-Syn in the brain tissues of transgenic mouse strains and in the brain tissues of dementia with Lewy body cases. Based on these results, the most promising vaccine targeting 3 B-cell epitopes of hα-Syn simultaneously (PV-1950D) has been chosen for ongoing preclinical assessment in mouse models of hα-Syn with the aim to translate it to the human clinical trials.

Integrated analysis of genetic, behavioral, and biochemical data implicates neural stem cell-induced changes in immunity, neurotransmission and mitochondrial function in Dementia with Lewy Body mice.

We previously demonstrated that transplantation of murine neural stem cells (NSCs) can improve motor and cognitive function in a transgenic model of Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB). These benefits occurred without changes in human α-synuclein pathology and were mediated in part by stem cell-induced elevation of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). However, instrastriatal NSC transplantation likely alters the brain microenvironment via multiple mechanisms that may synergize to promote cognitive and motor recovery. The underlying neurobiology that mediates such restoration no doubt involves numerous genes acting in concert to modulate signaling within and between host brain cells and transplanted NSCs. In order to identify functionally connected gene networks and additional mechanisms that may contribute to stem cell-induced benefits, we performed weighted gene co-expression network analysis (WGCNA) on striatal tissue isolated from NSC- and vehicle-injected wild-type and DLB mice. Combining continuous behavioral and biochemical data with genome wide expression via network analysis proved to be a powerful approach; revealing significant alterations in immune response, neurotransmission, and mitochondria function. Taken together, these data shed further light on the gene network and biological processes that underlie the therapeutic effects of NSC transplantation on α-synuclein induced cognitive and motor impairments, thereby highlighting additional therapeutic targets for synucleinopathies.

Human Neural Progenitor Transplantation Rescues Behavior and Reduces α-Synuclein in a Transgenic Model of Dementia with Lewy Bodies.

Synucleinopathies are a group of neurodegenerative disorders sharing the common feature of misfolding and accumulation of the presynaptic protein α-synuclein (α-syn) into insoluble aggregates. Within this diverse group, Dementia with Lewy Bodies (DLB) is characterized by the aberrant accumulation of α-syn in cortical, hippocampal, and brainstem neurons, resulting in multiple cellular stressors that particularly impair dopamine and glutamate neurotransmission and related motor and cognitive function. Recent studies show that murine neural stem cell (NSC) transplantation can improve cognitive or motor function in transgenic models of Alzheimer's and Huntington's disease, and DLB. However, examination of clinically relevant human NSCs in these models is hindered by the challenges of xenotransplantation and the confounding effects of immunosuppressant drugs on pathology and behavior. To address this challenge, we developed an immune-deficient transgenic model of DLB that lacks T-, B-, and NK-cells, yet exhibits progressive accumulation of human α-syn (h-α-syn)-laden inclusions and cognitive and motor impairments. We demonstrate that clinically relevant human neural progenitor cells (line CNS10-hNPCs) survive, migrate extensively and begin to differentiate preferentially into astrocytes following striatal transplantation into this DLB model. Critically, grafted CNS10-hNPCs rescue both cognitive and motor deficits after 1 and 3 months and, furthermore, restore striatal dopamine and glutamate systems. These behavioral and neurochemical benefits are likely achieved by reducing α-syn oligomers. Collectively, these results using a new model of DLB demonstrate that hNPC transplantation can impact a broad array of disease mechanisms and phenotypes and suggest a cellular therapeutic strategy that should be pursued. Stem Cells Translational Medicine 2017;6:1477-1490.

Front and Back Flipping for Neurobiology! Developing a Hybrid Upper-Division Lab Course.

Flipped instruction using online enrichment is a popular way to enhance active learning in the laboratory setting. Graduate student teaching assistants at University of California, Irvine flipped an upper division undergraduate neurobiology and behavior lab using the new online software platform "Rocketmix." The following research study compares the impact of pre-lab online instruction (front flipping) and post-lab online instruction (back flipping) on student exam performance. We describe a novel method for unbiased categorization of exam questions by degree of difficulty. Multi-choice instruction encourages students to consider all distractors and discourages verbal cues and process of elimination techniques. Eighteen identical questions were evenly distributed across exam versions with multiple choice instruction (single answer) or a more challenging multi-choice instruction (more than one answer). Student performance on multiple choice questions were used to categorize the degree of difficulty of questions that were presented in multi-choice format. Our findings reveal that pre-lab instruction resulted in better student performance compared with post-lab instruction on questions of moderate difficulty. This effect was significant for both male and female students. Student survey data on the flipped lab format is provided, indicating that students appreciated the online instructional modules, finding them both informative and useful during lab exercises and exams.

Phytophthora Species in Rivers and Streams of the Southwestern United States.

UNLABELLED: Phytophthora species were isolated from rivers and streams in the southwestern United States by leaf baiting and identified by sequence analysis of internal transcribed spacer (ITS) ribosomal DNA (rDNA). The major waterways examined included the Rio Grande River, Gila River, Colorado River, and San Juan River. The most prevalent species identified in rivers and streams were Phytophthora lacustris and P. riparia, both members of Phytophthora ITS clade 6. P. gonapodyides, P. cinnamomi, and an uncharacterized Phytophthora species in clade 9 were also recovered. In addition, six isolates recovered from the Rio Grande River were shown to be hybrids of P. lacustris × P. riparia Pathogenicity assays using P. riparia and P. lacustris failed to produce any disease symptoms on commonly grown crops in the southwestern United States. Inoculation of Capsicum annuum with P. riparia was shown to inhibit disease symptom development when subsequently challenged with P. capsici, a pathogenic Phytophthora species. IMPORTANCE: Many Phytophthora species are significant plant pathogens causing disease on a large variety of crops worldwide. Closer examinations of streams, rivers, and forest soils have also identified numerous Phytophthora species that do not appear to be phytopathogens and likely act as early saprophytes in aquatic and saturated environments. To date, the Phytophthora species composition in rivers and streams of the southwestern United States has not been evaluated. This article details a study to determine the identity and prevalence of Phytophthora species in rivers and streams located in New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, and Texas. Isolated species were evaluated for pathogenicity on crop plants and for their potential to act as biological control agents.

Neural Stem Cells Rescue Cognitive and Motor Dysfunction in a Transgenic Model of Dementia with Lewy Bodies through a BDNF-Dependent Mechanism.

Accumulation of α-synuclein (α-syn) into insoluble aggregates occurs in several related disorders collectively referred to as synucleinopathies. To date, studies have used neural stem cells (NSCs) to examine questions about α-syn propagation, but have overlooked the therapeutic potential of NSC transplantation to modulate cognition in disorders such as dementia with Lewy bodies or Parkinson's disease dementia. Here, we show that striatal transplantation of NSCs into aged α-syn transgenic mice significantly improves performance in multiple cognitive and motor domains. This recovery is associated with NSC expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which restores depleted levels and modulates dopaminergic and glutamatergic systems. Most importantly, transplantation of BDNF-depleted NSCs fails to improve behavior, whereas AAV-mediated BDNF delivery mimics the benefits of NSC transplantation, supporting a critical role for this neurotrophin in functional improvement. Thus, NSC transplantation could offer a promising approach to treat the understudied yet devastating cognitive components of many synucleinopathies.

BABA and Phytophthora nicotianae Induce Resistance to Phytophthora capsici in Chile Pepper (Capsicum annuum).

Induced resistance in plants is a systemic response to certain microorganisms or chemicals that enhances basal defense responses during subsequent plant infection by pathogens. Inoculation of chile pepper with zoospores of non-host Phytophthora nicotianae or the chemical elicitor beta-aminobutyric acid (BABA) significantly inhibited foliar blight caused by Phytophthora capsici. Tissue extract analyses by GC/MS identified conserved change in certain metabolite concentrations following P. nicotianae or BABA treatment. Induced chile pepper plants had reduced concentrations of sucrose and TCA cycle intermediates and increased concentrations of specific hexose-phosphates, hexose-disaccharides and amino acids. Galactose, which increased significantly in induced chile pepper plants, was shown to inhibit growth of P. capsici in a plate assay.

Torsion of a huge accessory spleen in a 20-year-old patient.

INTRODUCTION: Accessory spleen is a rare condition. Torsion of accessory spleen can lead to acute abdomen. PRESENTATION OF CASE: We describe a young woman with an acute abdomen caused by torsion of accessory spleen. Abdominal computed tomography angiography (CTA) demonstrated an ischemic giant accessory spleen with a twisted vascular pedicle. An emergency laparotomy was performed with resection of the infarcted accessory spleen. DISCUSSION: Accessory spleen is a rare and asymptomatic condition. Torsion of accessory spleen is also uncommon. Abdominal pain is the main symptom. CTA is effective in reaching a diagnosis. Definitive treatment of an acute abdomen due to accessory splenic torsion is emergency accessory splenectomy. CONCLUSION: Elective accessory splenectomy should be recommended for known giant accessory spleen to prevent complications in future.

CART peptide is a potential endogenous antioxidant and preferentially localized in mitochondria.

The multifunctional neuropeptide Cocaine and Amphetamine Regulated Transcript (CART) is secreted from hypothalamus, pituitary, adrenal gland and pancreas. It also can be found in circulatory system. This feature suggests a general role for CART in different cells. In the present study, we demonstrate that CART protects mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), cellular proteins and lipids against the oxidative action of hydrogen peroxide, a widely used oxidant. Using cis-parinaric acid as a sensitive reporting probe for peroxidation in membranes, and a lipid-soluble azo initiator of peroxyl radicals, 2,2'-azobis(2,4-dimethylvaleronitrile) we found that CART is an antioxidant. Furthermore, we found that CART localized to mitochondria in cultured cells and mouse brain neuronal cells. More importantly, pretreatment with CART by systemic injection protects against a mouse oxidative stress model, which mimics the main features of Parkinson's disease. Given the unique molecular structure and biological features of CART, we conclude that CART is an antioxidant peptide (or antioxidant hormone). We further propose that it may have strong therapeutic properties for human diseases in which oxidative stress is strongly involved such as Parkinson's disease.

Social enrichment attenuates nigrostriatal lesioning and reverses motor impairment in a progressive 1-methyl-2-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse model of Parkinson's disease.

Environmental enrichment has been shown to be both neuroprotective and neurorestorative in 1-methyl-2-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) mouse models of Parkinson's disease (PD). However, whether social interaction or novel physical stimulation is responsible for this recovery is controversial. In the current study, we have investigated the effects of only social enrichment (SocE) in progressively MPTP-lesioned mice. After mice were lesioned using a progressively increased dose (4 mg/kg, 8 mg/kg, 16 mg/kg and 32 mg/kg; each dose daily for 5 days), the MPTP-induced behavioral deficits, after the 32 mg/kg dose, were reversed with acute L-DOPA. This acute behavioral recovery suggests that this progressive MPTP-induced neurodegeneration is an appropriate murine model of PD. Mice were housed four per cage for the first 2 weeks of progressive lesioning or vehicle treatment. After the 8 mg/kg MPTP dose (prior to SocE intervention) mice showed a significant decrease in rearing and foot fault behaviors (FF/BB) compared to the vehicle group. Additionally, there was a 38% decrease in mean number of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive (TH-ir) substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) neurons/section, and a 50% decrease in the optical density of TH-ir dorsolateral caudate putamen (CPu) terminals compared to the vehicle group. Mice were then housed either two (socially limited environment; SLE) or twelve (SocE) mice per cage during continued MPTP lesioning for the next 2 weeks at 16 mg/kg and 32 mg/kg MPTP. MPTP treatment was then discontinued, while mice remained in the SLE or SocE cages for an additional week. Rearing behavior was further impaired in SLE-MPTP mice following progressive MPTP, accompanied by additional decreases in the mean number of TH-ir SNpc neurons/section and CPu TH-ir terminals. CPu TH and dopamine transporter (DAT) protein expression, as well as dopamine tissue and TH protein levels was significantly decreased compared to either vehicle group. However, the deficit in rearing behavior in SLE-MPTP mice was reversed with acute L-DOPA following the intervention period. SocE-MPTP mice showed rearing and FF/BB behaviors similar to vehicle levels, although FF/BB was not significantly different from pre-intervention levels. The reversal from pre-intervention rearing deficits was correlated with an attenuated decrease in the mean number of SNpc TH-ir neurons/section and CPu TH and DAT protein, and with a blocked decrease in CPu TH-ir terminals compared to pre-intervention levels. Our findings show that SocE mice not only resist further nigrostriatal lesioning and FF/BB deficit, but rearing behavior is recovered to the level of the vehicle group despite continued MPTP treatment. In contrast, SLE mice showed continued loss of nigrostriatal TH-ir and decline of motor behaviors with progressive MPTP. The data suggest that non-pharmacological intervention that started at an early stage of dopamine loss is effective at slowing or blocking further nigrostriatal degeneration.

Profiling changes in gait dynamics resulting from progressive 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-induced nigrostriatal lesioning.

Current behavioral measurements for motor impairment are not consistently sensitive in rodent models of partial nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) depletion. In addition to exploratory and somatosensory behavior, motor skills that are thought to be directly translatable to human Parkinson's disease patients are assessed. However, many of these motor tests require the training and learning of particular tasks, so it cannot be determined whether impairments are due to motor or to learning deficit. Therefore, we have quantified multiple temporal and spatial indices of gait dynamics in a model of 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced partial nigrostriatal lesioning using a treadmill apparatus requiring no prior training. Three days following the cessation of progressively increased MPTP administration, rearing and foot-fault behaviors showed significant deficit. Ten days after the final MPTP injection, gait dynamics were assessed and indicated differences between MPTP- and vehicle-treated animals. The major significant changes were in stride length, frequency, duration, and number of steps. Three weeks following a progressively increased dose of MPTP (administered 5 days per week over the course of 4 weeks), mice showed a 63% decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive (TH-ir) nigrostriatal neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and a 72% decrease in TH-ir terminals in the caudate-putamen. This suggests that there is a continued effect of progressively increased MPTP on nigrostriatal DA neurons, correlated with rearing and foot-fault behaviors and further characterized by differences in temporal and spatial measurements of gait dynamics.

Effects of treadmill exercise on behavioral recovery and neural changes in the substantia nigra and striatum of the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine-lesioned mouse.

Our goal was to extend our understanding of the neural changes behind motor recovery with treadmill exercise in the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-lesioned mouse. We determined the extent of dopamine (DA) terminal changes using Western immunoblotting [striatal dopamine transporter (DAT) and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)] and alterations in the mean number of DA cells/section by immunohistochemistry and Nissl staining [TH-labeled cells and thionin-stained cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SN-PC)]. We measured recovery of gait performance and amount of spontaneous physical activity using the parallel rod activity chamber (PRAC). We hypothesized that the decrease in TH-labeled neurons in the SN-PC due to MPTP will be partially reversed by treadmill exercise, leading to recovery of motor behavior as measured by the PRAC. Following MPTP or vehicle administration, mice ran on the treadmill for 1h/day at 18cm/s, 5days/week. Results showed that treadmill exercise improves gait performance and increases physical activity while promoting increased protein expression of striatal DAT and TH. Exercise was effective for all mice; however, effects of early treadmill-based intervention appear to have an additional and unique benefit in mice who received MPTP. We are the first to show that, even following a nearly 50% decrease in the mean number of TH-labeled neurons/section in the SN-PC following MPTP, treadmill exercise leads to an increase of neurons in the SN-PC and improved motor behavior.

Genetic analysis of a novel Xylella fastidiosa subspecies found in the southwestern United States.

Xylella fastidiosa, the causal agent of several scorch diseases, is associated with leaf scorch symptoms in Chitalpa tashkentensis, a common ornamental landscape plant used throughout the southwestern United States. For a number of years, many chitalpa trees in southern New Mexico and Arizona exhibited leaf scorch symptoms, and the results from a regional survey show that chitalpa trees from New Mexico, Arizona, and California are frequently infected with X. fastidiosa. Phylogenetic analysis of multiple loci was used to compare the X. fastidiosa infecting chitalpa strains from New Mexico, Arizona, and trees imported into New Mexico nurseries with previously reported X. fastidiosa strains. Loci analyzed included the 16S ribosome, 16S-23S ribosomal intergenic spacer region, gyrase-B, simple sequence repeat sequences, X. fastidiosa-specific sequences, and the virulence-associated protein (VapD). This analysis indicates that the X. fastidiosa isolates associated with infected chitalpa trees in the Southwest are a highly related group that is distinct from the four previously defined taxons X. fastidiosa subsp. fastidiosa (piercei), X. fastidiosa subsp. multiplex, X. fastidiosa subsp. sandyi, and X. fastidiosa subsp. pauca. Therefore, the classification proposed for this new subspecies is X. fastidiosa subsp. tashke.