Association between Flavonoid Intake and Cognitive Executive Function among African American and White Adults in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) Study.

Healthy dietary patterns rich in flavonoids may benefit cognitive performance over time. Among socioeconomically disadvantaged groups, the association between flavonoid intake and measures of cognition is unclear. This study sought to identify associations between flavonoid intake and cognitive performance among Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study participants (n = 1947) across three study visits. Flavonoid intakes were assessed via two 24-h dietary recalls. Cognitive performance was assessed via the Trail Making Test (TMT)-A and TMT-B, which provide measures of attention and executive function, respectively. Mixed effects linear regression was used to model TMT scores over three study visits against visit 1 (v1) flavonoid intake, time (years from v1), and the interaction between v1 flavonoid intake and time, capturing both the cross-sectional association between flavonoid intake and time at v1 as well as the longitudinal association between v1 flavonoid intake and the change in TMT scores over time. Prior to adjustment, inverse cross-sectional associations at v1 were observed between (1) anthocyanidin intake and TMT-A scores for the overall sample and (2) total flavonoid, anthocyanidin, flavan-3-ol, flavone, and flavonol intake and TMT-B scores for the overall sample and among White adults. Only the association between anthocyanidin intake and TMT-B at v1 among White adults persisted after adjustment (for demographic characteristics such as age). One possible explanation for the few significant associations is universally low flavonoid intakes resulting from the consumption of an unhealthy dietary pattern.

Frequency of Eating in the US Population: A Narrative Review of the 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee Report.

Background: A person's daily nutrient intake and overall nutritional status are determined by a complex interplay of the types and amounts of foods ingested in combination with the timing and frequency of eating. Objectives: The aim was to summarize frequency of eating occasion data examined by the 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, the macronutrient contributions they provide, and meal frequency relative to dietary quality among the US population (≥2 y), with a focus on sex, age, race/Hispanic origin, and income. Methods: Demographic and 24-h recall data from the 2013-2016 NHANES were examined. An eating occasion was defined as "any ingestive event (e.g., solid food, beverage, water) that is either energy yielding or non-energy yielding"; all eating occasions were further divided into discrete meals and snacks. Frequency of meals and snacks was defined as "the number of daily EOs [eating occasions]," respectively. Diet quality was assessed via the Healthy Eating Index (HEI)-2015. Results: Most Americans consume 2 (28%) to 3 (64%) meals on a given day and >90% consume 2 to 3 snacks on that day. Adult, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic Black and lower-income (<131% family poverty-to-income ratio) Americans had a lower frequency of eating than children or adolescents, non-Hispanic White, and non-Hispanic Asian Americans and higher-income Americans, respectively. Americans who reported 3 meals on a given day consumed a diet higher in dietary quality than Americans who consumed 2 meals on a given day (HEI-2015: 61.0 vs. 55.0), regardless of population subgroup. Conclusions: The frequency of the types of eating occasions differs according to age, race and Hispanic origin, and income. Dietary quality is associated with the number of meals consumed. Healthy dietary patterns can be constructed in a variety of ways to suit different life stages, cultural practices, and income levels; improved diet quality and careful consideration of nutrient density when planning meals are warranted.

Usual Intake of Flavonoids Is Inversely Associated with Metabolic Syndrome in African American and White Males but Not Females in Baltimore City, Maryland, USA.

Despite research that suggests flavonoids protect against metabolic syndrome (MetS) and evidence that intake of these compounds differs by race, knowledge about whether flavonoid-MetS associations vary among racial groups is limited. This study sought to estimate usual total flavonoid intake in African American and White adults and assess its sex- and sex/race-specific associations with MetS and its risk factors. Analysis of cross-sectional data from 1837 adults participating in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study were analyzed. Usual total flavonoid intake was estimated using the NCI Method, and logistic regression measured its linkages with health outcomes. Among males overall and when stratified by race, odds of MetS and its risk factors low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and elevated glucose were lower at the 75th percentile of usual total flavonoid intake than at the 25th percentile (OR for MetS = 0.62; 95% CI = 0.53, 0.71). However, low HDL-C and elevated glucose were positively associated with usual flavonoid intake among females. The comparable associations by race within sex imply that the relationships between flavonoid and health outcomes may be evident across an array of intakes.

Dietary and Complementary Feeding Practices of US Infants, 6 to 12 Months: A Narrative Review of the Federal Nutrition Monitoring Data.

Complementary foods and beverages (CFBs) are key components of an infant's diet in the second 6 months of life. This article summarizes nutrition and feeding practices examined by the 2020 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committees during the CFB life stage. Breastfeeding initiation is high (84%), but exclusive breastfeeding at 6 months (26%) is below the Healthy People 2030 goal (42%). Most infants (51%) are introduced to CFBs sometime before 6 months. The primary mode of feeding (ie, human milk fed [HMF]; infant formula or mixed formula and human milk fed [FMF]) at the initiation of CFBs is associated with the timing of introduction and types of CFBs reported. FMF infants (42%) are more likely to be introduced to CFBs before 4 months compared with HMF infants (19%). Different dietary patterns, such as higher prevalence of consumption and mean amounts, were observed, including fruit, grains, dairy, proteins, and solid fats. Compared with HMF infants of the same age, FMF infants consume more total energy (845 vs 631 kcal) and protein (22 vs 12 g) from all sources, and more energy (345 vs 204 kcal) and protein (11 vs 6 g) from CFBs alone. HMF infants have a higher prevalence of risk of inadequate intakes of iron (77% vs 7%), zinc (54% vs <3%), and protein (27% vs <3%). FMF infants are more likely to have an early introduction (<12 months) to fruit juice (45% vs 20%) and cow's milk (36% vs 24%). Registered dietitian nutritionists and nutritional professionals should consider tailoring their advice to caregivers on dietary and complementary feeding practices, taking into account the primary mode of milk feeding during this life stage to support infants' nutrient adequacy. National studies that address the limitations of this analysis, including small sample sizes and imputed breast milk volume, could refine findings from this analysis.

Late Evening Eating Patterns among US Adults Vary in Their Associations With, and Impact on, Energy Intake and Diet Quality: Evidence from What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2016.

BACKGROUND: Evening eating has been associated with higher energy intake and lower nutrient density. However, these qualities may not characterize all late evening (LE) eating patterns. OBJECTIVE: We sought to characterize US adults' LE eating patterns on a given day and identify differences, if any, in pattern-specific associations with, and impact on, daily energy intake and total diet quality. DESIGN: LE eating patterns, energy intakes, and Healthy Eating Index (HEI) scores were identified using Day-1 dietary recall data from the cross-sectional National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2013-2016. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: The sample included adults aged ≥ 20 years (n = 9,861). LE reporters were respondents who consumed foods/beverages between 20:00 and 23:59 on the intake day. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Energy intake and HEI-2015 scores by LE status/pattern and the impact of LE consumption on these measures. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Cluster analysis assigned individuals to LE eating patterns based on the LE energy contribution of food/beverage groups. Regression models estimated energy intake and HEI-2015 scores; estimates were compared between LE reporters and nonreporters. Similarly, LE's contribution to total energy and the difference in total HEI inclusive vs exclusive of LE consumption were estimated and compared among patterns. RESULTS: Among US adults, 64.4% were LE reporters. Eleven LE patterns were identified; the six most prevalent patterns (representing 89% of LE reporters) were further analyzed. Daily energy intake in all prevalent patterns except the fruit pattern exceeded that of nonreporters by ≥ 268 kcal (unadjusted; P < 0.001), varying by pattern. Conversely, total HEI score did not differ from that of nonreporters (51.0) in any pattern except the fruit pattern, where it was higher (57.4, unadjusted; P < 0.001). Generally, LE consumption's impact on energy was high and its impact on HEI scores was low. CONCLUSIONS: Late evening food/beverage consumption is common among US adults, and LE patterns are not monolithic in their associations with, and impact on, total energy intake and dietary quality.

Application of the Database of Flavonoid Values for USDA Food Codes 2007-2010 in Assessing Intake Differences Between the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) Study and What We Eat in America (WWEIA), NHANES.

Flavonoids are polyphenolic plant compounds whose biological activities may promote human health. It is worthwhile to examine whether flavonoid intake varies between populations with differing prevalence of diet-related diseases. This study compared flavonoid intakes in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study with nationally representative estimates from What We Eat in America (WWEIA), NHANES stratified by sex, age (30-49, 50-64 years), and poverty status (income <125%, >125% of the 2004 HHS Poverty Guidelines). Flavonoid intakes from both surveys were estimated using the Database of Flavonoid Values for USDA Food Codes 2007-2010. Across all subpopulations analyzed, intake of anthocyanidins was lower in HANDLS (p<0.01). Intakes of total flavonoids and all or most flavonoid classes were lower in HANDLS for men overall and in both age groups and for both men and women with poverty status <125%. These findings of lower flavonoid intakes in HANDLS, particularly among men and those with the lowest incomes, suggest that flavonoid intake may be a factor in the high prevalence of diet-related disease in populations represented by HANDLS. This research illustrates how any survey using USDA's food codes can utilize the Flavonoid Database in comparing flavonoid intakes.

Consuming Vegetable-Based Salad Is Associated with Higher Nutrient Intakes and Diet Quality among US Adults, What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2014.

BACKGROUND: Consuming salad is one strategy with the potential to harmonize diets more closely with national dietary guidance. However, it is not known whether nutrient intake and diet quality differ between people who consume vegetable-based salad and those who do not. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to compare nutrient intake and diet quality between salad reporters and nonreporters. DESIGN: This study is a cross-sectional analysis of 1 day of dietary intake data collected via 24-hour recall. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: Adults 20 years and older (n=9,678) in What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2014 were included. Respondents who ate salad on the intake day were considered salad reporters. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: This study estimated nutrient intake from all foods and beverages (excluding supplements) and evaluated diet quality using the Healthy Eating Index (HEI) 2015. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Nutrient intake and HEI scores were compared between salad reporters and nonreporters using paired t tests with regression adjustment for confounding variables. Results were considered significant at P<0.001. RESULTS: On the intake day, 23% of adults consumed salad. Energy, protein, and carbohydrate intakes did not differ between salad reporters and nonreporters. Salad reporters had higher intakes than nonreporters of dietary fiber, total fat, unsaturated fatty acids, vitamins A, B-6, C, E, K, folate, choline, magnesium, potassium, and sodium (P<0.001). Total HEI 2015 scores were significantly higher for reporters (56 of a possible 100 points) than nonreporters (50 points) P<0.001. Reporters also had significantly higher scores for eight of 13 HEI components: total vegetables, greens and beans, whole fruits, total protein foods, seafood and plant proteins, fatty acids, refined grains, and added sugars (P<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Incorporating vegetable-based salad into one's diet may be one effective way to increase nutrient intake and improve overall diet quality. Regardless of salad reporting status, HEI scores show that diets of US adults need improvement.

Findings from What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2014 support salad consumption as an effective strategy for improving adherence to dietary recommendations.

OBJECTIVE: To verify the previously untested assumption that eating more salad enhances vegetable intake and determine if salad consumption is in fact associated with higher vegetable intake and greater adherence to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA) recommendations. DESIGN: Individuals were classified as salad reporters or non-reporters based upon whether they consumed a salad composed primarily of raw vegetables on the intake day. Regression analyses were applied to calculate adjusted estimates of food group intakes and assess the likelihood of meeting Healthy US-Style Food Pattern recommendations by salad reporting status. SETTING: Cross-sectional analysis of data collected in 2011-2014 in What We Eat in America, the dietary intake component of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey.ParticipantsUS adults (n 9678) aged ≥20 years (excluding pregnant and lactating women). RESULTS: On the intake day, 23 % of adults ate salad. The proportion of individuals reporting salad varied by sex, age, race, income, education and smoking status (P<0·001). Compared with non-reporters, salad reporters consumed significantly larger quantities of vegetables (total, dark green, red/orange and other), which translated into a two- to threefold greater likelihood of meeting recommendations for these food groups. More modest associations were observed between salad consumption and differences in intake and likelihood of meeting recommendations for protein foods (total and seafood), oils and refined grains. CONCLUSIONS: Study results confirm the DGA message that incorporating more salads in the diet is one effective strategy (among others, such as eating more cooked vegetables) to augment vegetable consumption and adherence to dietary recommendations concerning vegetables.

Mineral Intake Ratios Are a Weak but Significant Factor in Blood Pressure Variability in US Adults.

Background: Hypertension contributes substantially to chronic disease and mortality. Mineral intakes can modify blood pressure. Objective: Individual minerals and their intake ratios in US adults and their association with blood pressure were examined. Methods: Regression models were used to examine the associations of sodium, potassium, and calcium intakes and their ratios from food and supplements with blood pressure in 8777 US adults without impaired renal function from the 2011-2014 NHANES. We evaluated men (n = 4395) and women (n = 4382) separately. Models for predicting blood pressure were developed using age, blood pressure medication, race, body mass index (BMI), and smoking as explanatory variables. Results: Few adults met the recommended intake ratios for sodium:potassium (1.2% and 1.5%), sodium:calcium (12.8% and 17.67%), and sodium:magnesium (13.7% and 7.3%) for men and women, respectively. Approximately half of adults (55.2% of men and 54.8% of women) met calcium:magnesium intake ratio recommendations. In our regression models, the factors that explained the largest amount of variability in blood pressure were age, blood pressure medication, race/ethnicity, BMI, and smoking status. Together, these factors explained 31% and 15% of the variability in systolic blood pressure in women and men, respectively. The sodium:potassium (men and women), sodium:magnesium (women), and sodium:calcium (men) intake ratios were positively associated with systolic blood pressure, whereas calcium intake was inversely associated with systolic blood pressure in men only. When mineral intake ratios were added individually to our regression models, they improved the percentage of variability in blood pressure explained by the model by 0.13-0.21%. Conclusions: Strategies to lower blood pressure are needed. Lower sodium:potassium intake ratios provide a small benefit for protection against hypertension in US adults.

Dietary Flavonoid Intakes Are Associated with Race but Not Income in an Urban Population.

Flavonoids are polyphenolic phytochemicals with health-promoting properties, yet knowledge about their intake in at-risk populations is limited. This study sought to estimate intakes of total flavonoids and six flavonoid classes in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study; determine if differences in intakes exist by race (African American (AA) and White (W)) and income (< or >125% Federal poverty guidelines); and compare intakes to those of a nationally representative population with similar demographic and socioeconomic characteristics. Data transformation normalized the flavonoid intake distributions prior to conducting statistical tests. With the exception of the flavanone class, flavonoid intakes of AAs were significantly lower than those of W (p < 0.01), regardless of other potential mediating factors including sex, age, and income. Total flavonoid intakes in HANDLS did not differ from intakes in the nationally representative study, but anthocyanidin and flavone intakes were lower, and race specific differences were found for several flavonoid classes. These findings imply that benefits attributable to flavonoid consumption may not be experienced equally by AAs and Whites, nor in vulnerable populations such as that represented by HANDLS relative to the U.S. population, and may play a role in observed health disparities.

Association between dietary protein intake and grip strength among adults aged 51 years and over: What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011-2014.

INTRODUCTION: Distributing daily protein intake evenly across meals (∼25-30g/meal) has been suggested to improve muscle mass. The aim of this research is to examine the association between grip strength, total protein intake and its distribution across day's meals in older adults. METHODS: Nationally representative dietary intake data of adults aged 51 years and older (n = 4,123) who participated in What We Eat in America, NHANES 2011-2014 were analyzed. Protein intake per day and per eating occasion (breakfast, lunch, dinner, and snack) were determined. Combined grip strength was calculated and expressed in kilograms. Grip strength of individuals consuming ≥25g protein at 1 eating occasion was compared with those consuming same level of protein at 2 and 3 or more eating occasions. Grip strength of individuals in quartile 1 of daily protein intake was compared to those in the other quartiles. All associations were examined without and with adjustment for age, race/ethnicity, physical activity, health status, and smoking status. The comparison involving eating occasions and protein intake quartiles were further adjusted for daily protein intake and energy intake, respectively. RESULTS: Only 33% of men and 19% of women had protein intake of ≥25g at 2 or more eating occasions. These individuals also had higher grip strength and daily protein intake. Grip strength was positively associated with consumption of ≥25g protein at 2 eating occasions as compared to consumption of same level of protein at 1 eating occasion (p<0.05) in unadjusted model, but not when adjusted. Grip strength was positively associated with daily protein intake among women in quartiles 3 and 4 (p<0.05) of protein intake in both unadjusted and adjusted models compared to lowest protein intake. Among men, grip strength was associated with daily protein intake in quartiles 3 and 4 (p<0.05) in the unadjusted model, but not when adjusted. CONCLUSION: In a nationally representative sample of older adults, consuming ≥25g protein at 2 or more eating occasions was not associated with grip strength. However, higher daily protein intake was positively associated with grip strength in women.

Dietary Flavonoid Intake Is Inversely Associated with Cardiovascular Disease Risk as Assessed by Body Mass Index and Waist Circumference among Adults in the United States.

Although flavonoids may confer anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant benefits, no research has examined if flavonoid intake is related to cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk defined by anthropometric measures in the USA population. This study sought to determine whether flavonoid intake is associated with combined body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) measures indicative of high, very high, or extremely high ("high+") risk for CVD, using one day of 24-h recall data from adult (≥20 years) participants in What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2007-2010. Individuals were divided into categories of intake of total flavonoids and each flavonoid class, and adjusted estimates of the percentages at high+ CVD risk (based on BMI and WC, as per National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute guidelines) were calculated. Inverse linear trends were found in percentages of adults at high+ CVD risk by intake of total flavonoids, anthocyanidins, flavan-3-ols, and flavanones (p < 0.01). For individuals in the highest (versus the lowest) intake category of anthocyanidins, flavan-3-ols, and flavanones, relative risk and confidence intervals (RR and CI, respectively) were 0.86 (99% CI: 0.79, 0.93), 0.88 (99% CI: 0.79, 0.98), and 0.89 (99% CI: 0.80, 0.98), respectively. Research is needed to determine whether the inverse relationships found in this study are applicable to CVD endpoints at the population level.

Fruit and vegetable intake of US adults estimated by two methods: What We Eat In America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2012.

OBJECTIVE: Estimates of fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption vary depending on intake definition, which may be determined by research purpose. Researchers have used two methods to evaluate intake: epidemiological and behavioural. The present study describes FV intake by adults using epidemiological v. behavioural approaches. DESIGN: One-day dietary intake data from What We Eat In America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2012 were used. Sample weights were used to produce nationally representative estimates. FV intake (in cup-equivalents (CE)) was estimated using the Food Patterns Equivalents Database. The epidemiological method considered all FV after disaggregating foods and beverages. The behavioural method included foods that provided at least 0·2 CE FV per 100 g, and excluded sources high in fat, added sugar and Na. SETTING: Nationally representative survey of the US population. SUBJECTS: Adults (n 10 563) aged ≥20 years. RESULTS: For epidemiological v. behavioural, fruit intake was 1·1 v. 1·0 CE for males and 1·0 v. 0·9 CE for females. Vegetable intake was 1·8 v. 1·1 CE for males and 1·5 v. 1·0 CE for females. CONCLUSIONS: The definition of FV intake affects estimates of consumption by the population and is an important consideration when planning and comparing research studies. The method used should align with research goals to assure accurate interpretation and validity of results.

The Contribution of Beverages to Intakes of Energy and MyPlate Components by Current, Former, and Never Smokers in the United States.

BACKGROUND: Although beverage intake patterns have been shown to differ by smoking status, it is unknown whether the contributions of beverages to intakes of energy and MyPlate components also differ. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to compare beverage intakes and contributions of energy and MyPlate components by source (food alone, beverages alone, and food and beverages together) in diets of adult current, former, and never smokers. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS: Dietary data from 4,823 men and 4,672 women aged ≥20 years who participated in What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2005-2008, were analyzed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Beverage intake and the contributions to energy and MyPlate components by beverages. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS: Regression analyses identified differences in intake among groups. RESULTS: Current smokers consumed more total beverages, coffee, and sugar-sweetened beverages than never and former smokers (P<0.001). Male current smokers drank more alcoholic beverages than never and former smokers, whereas female current and former smokers both consumed more alcoholic beverages than never smokers. Current smokers obtained more energy from beverages than their nonsmoking counterparts, although total energy intake did not differ. Intakes of added sugars, alcohol, and empty calories were higher for current than never smokers, and differences were accounted for by current smokers' beverage choices. CONCLUSIONS: This study adds to the body of research on smoking and dietary behavior by showing that not only do smokers consume a higher volume of beverages, but they also have a higher intake of energy provided by beverages, mainly empty calories from added sugars and alcohol. Our findings highlight the importance of assessing beverages' contribution to the total diet. Recognizing the common co-occurrence of smoking and specific beverage choices can help target health promotion and disease prevention efforts for this subpopulation.

A New Database Facilitates Characterization of Flavonoid Intake, Sources, and Positive Associations with Diet Quality among US Adults.

BACKGROUND: Epidemiologic studies demonstrate inverse associations between flavonoid intake and chronic disease risk. However, lack of comprehensive databases of the flavonoid content of foods has hindered efforts to fully characterize population intakes and determine associations with diet quality. OBJECTIVES: Using a newly released database of flavonoid values, this study sought to describe intake and sources of total flavonoids and 6 flavonoid classes and identify associations between flavonoid intake and the Healthy Eating Index (HEI) 2010. METHODS: One day of 24-h dietary recall data from adults aged ≥ 20 y (n = 5420) collected in What We Eat in America (WWEIA), NHANES 2007-2008, were analyzed. Flavonoid intakes were calculated using the USDA Flavonoid Values for Survey Foods and Beverages 2007-2008. Regression analyses were conducted to provide adjusted estimates of flavonoid intake, and linear trends in total and component HEI scores by flavonoid intake were assessed using orthogonal polynomial contrasts. All analyses were weighted to be nationally representative. RESULTS: Mean intake of flavonoids was 251 mg/d, with flavan-3-ols accounting for 81% of intake. Non-Hispanic whites had significantly higher (P < 0.001) intakes of total flavonoids (275 mg/d) than non-Hispanic blacks (176 mg/d) and Hispanics (139 mg/d). Tea was the primary source (80%) of flavonoid intake. Regardless of whether the flavonoid contribution of tea was included, total HEI score and component scores for total fruit, whole fruit, total vegetables, greens and beans, seafood and plant proteins, refined grains, and empty calories increased (P < 0.001) across flavonoid intake quartiles. CONCLUSIONS: A new database that permits comprehensive estimation of flavonoid intakes in WWEIA, NHANES 2007-2008; identification of their major food/beverage sources; and determination of associations with dietary quality will lead to advances in research on relations between flavonoid intake and health. Findings suggest that diet quality, as measured by HEI, is positively associated with flavonoid intake.

Estimating Sodium and Potassium Intakes and Their Ratio in the American Diet: Data from the 2011-2012 NHANES.

BACKGROUND: The dietary sodium-to-potassium ratio (Na:K) is shown to be more strongly associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and CVD-related mortality than either sodium or potassium intake alone. OBJECTIVE: The aim was to estimate the Na:K in the diet of US adults. METHODS: Among US adults from the 2011-2012 NHANES (≥20 y; 2393 men and 2337 women), the National Cancer Institute method was used to estimate sodium and potassium intakes, Na:K, and the percentage of individuals with Na:K <1.0 utilizing the complex, stratified, multistage probability cluster sampling design. RESULTS: Overall, women had a significantly lower Na:K than men (mean ± SE: 1.32 ± 0.02 compared with 1.45 ± 0.02). Non-Hispanic whites had a significantly lower Na:K than non-Hispanic blacks and non-Hispanic Asians (1.34 ± 0.02 compared with 1.54 ± 0.03 and 1.49 ± 0.04, respectively). Only 12.2% ± 1.5% of US adults had a Na:K < 1.0. The Na:K decreased linearly as age increased. Most adults (90% ± 0.8%) had sodium intakes >2300 mg/d, whereas <3% had potassium intakes >4700 mg/d. Grains and vegetables were among the highest contributors to sodium intakes for adults with Na:K < 1.0, compared with protein foods and grains for those with Na:K ≥ 1.0. Vegetables and milk and dairy products constituted the primary dietary sources of potassium for individuals with Na:K < 1.0, whereas mixed dishes and protein foods contributed the most potassium for individuals with ratios ≥1.0. Individuals with a Na:K < 1.0 were less likely to consume mixed dishes and condiments and were more likely to consume vegetables, milk and dairy products, and fruit than those with a Na:K ≥ 1.0. CONCLUSION: Only about one-tenth of US adults have a Na:K consistent with the WHO guidelines for reduced risk of mortality. Continued efforts to reduce sodium intake in tandem with novel strategies to increase potassium intake are warranted.

Sandwiches are major contributors of sodium in the diets of American adults: results from What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2010.

Efforts to sharpen the focus of sodium reduction strategies include identification of major food group contributors of sodium intake. Although sandwiches are a staple of the American diet, previous examinations of their contribution to sodium intake captured only a small subset of sandwiches. One day of dietary intake data from 5,762 adults aged 20 years and older in What We Eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2009-2010 was analyzed. Sandwiches were defined in a manner that more accurately reflected their frequency of consumption. Two-sided t tests were used to compare percentages of men and women reporting sandwiches; contributions of sandwiches to energy and sodium intakes (amounts in kilocalories and milligrams, respectively, and percent of daily totals) by sex; and total energy, total sodium, and sodium density (mg/1,000 kcal) by sandwich reporting status (reporter/nonreporter). On any given day, 49% of American adults ate sandwiches. A significantly higher percentage of men than women reported sandwiches (54% vs 44%, respectively; P<0.001), and sandwiches accounted for higher percentages of men's total energy and sodium intakes. Compared with individuals who did not report a sandwich on the intake day, sandwich reporters had significantly higher energy and sodium intakes; however, sodium density of the diet did not vary by sandwich reporting status. Although much national attention is appropriately focused on reducing sodium in the food supply, consumer choices still play a vital role. Due to sandwiches' frequent consumption and considerable contributions to sodium intake, substituting lower-sodium for higher-sodium ingredients in sandwiches could significantly influence sodium intakes.

Monitoring sodium intake of the US population: impact and implications of a change in what we eat in America, National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey dietary data processing.

Accurate monitoring of US sodium intake requires familiarity with national dietary data collection and processing procedures. This article describes a data processing step that impacts sodium intake estimates, reasons for discontinuing the step, and implications of its discontinuation. This step, termed salt adjustment, was performed in US Department of Agriculture (USDA) dietary intake surveys from 1985 through 2008. In What We Eat in America (WWEIA), the dietary intake interview component of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), the salt content of specific foods was reduced on the basis of a question about household use of salt in cooking. For individuals whose households used salt in cooking occasionally or less often, some or all of the salt attributable to home preparation was removed from foods that typically have salt added during preparation and were obtained from the store. The growing availability of preprepared foods in stores challenges the validity of using store purchase as a proxy indicator of home food preparation, and increased restaurant/fast-food consumption implies fewer reported foods are eligible for the procedure. In addition, USDA's Automated Multiple-Pass Method for the 24-hour dietary recall provides accurate sodium intake estimates without applying the salt-adjustment step. The final WWEIA, NHANES data release to contain salt-adjusted sodium data was 2007-2008. When assessing the effectiveness of sodium-reduction efforts over time, the nutrition community (eg, researchers, analysts, providers) must be aware of this change in WWEIA, NHANES beginning in 2009-2010 and account for it using appropriate baseline estimates.

Change in methodology for collection of drinking water intake in What We Eat in America/National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey: implications for analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To provide updated estimates of drinking water intake (total, tap, plain bottled) for groups aged ≥1 year in the USA and to determine whether intakes collected in 2005-2006 using the Automated Multiple-Pass Method for the 24 h recall differ from intakes collected in 2003-2004 via post-recall food-frequency type questions. DESIGN: Cross-sectional, observational study. SETTING: What We Eat in America (WWEIA), the dietary intake component of the US National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). SUBJECTS: Individuals aged ≥1 year in 2003-2004 (n 8249) and 2005-2006 (n 8437) with one complete 24 h recall. RESULTS: The estimate for the percentage of individuals who reported total drinking water in 2005-2006 was significantly (P < 0·0000) smaller (76·9 %) than that for 2003-2004 (87·1 %), attributable to a lower percentage reporting tap water (54·1 % in 2005-2006 v. 67·0 % in 2003-2004; P = 0·0001). Estimates of mean tap water intake differed between the survey cycles for men aged ≥71 years. CONCLUSIONS: Survey variables must be examined before combining or comparing data from multiple WWEIA/NHANES release cycles. For at least some age/gender groups, drinking water intake data from NHANES cycles prior to 2005-2006 should not be considered comparable to more recent data.