ABSTRACT
In vivo Positron Emission Tomography (PET) imaging of the cystine-glutamate antiporter (system xc(-)) activity with [(18)F]FSPG is meant to be an attractive tool for the diagnosis and therapy evaluation of brain diseases. However, the role of system xc(-) in cerebral ischemia and its involvement in inflammatory reaction has been scarcely explored. In this work, we report the longitudinal investigation of the neuroinflammatory process following transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in rats using PET with [(18)F]FSPG and the translocator protein (TSPO) ligand [(18)F]DPA-714. In the ischemic territory, [(18)F]FSPG showed a progressive binding increase that peaked at days 3 to 7 and was followed by a progressive decrease from days 14 to 28 after reperfusion. In contrast, [(18)F]DPA-714 evidenced maximum binding uptake values over day 7 after reperfusion. Ex vivo immnunohistochemistry confirmed the up-regulation of system xc(-) in microglial cells and marginally in astrocytes. Inhibition of system xc(-) with sulfasalazine and S-4-CPG resulted in increased arginase (anti-inflammatory M2 marker) expression at day 7 after ischemia, together with a decrease in TSPO and microglial M1 proinflammatory markers (CCL2, TNF and iNOS) expression. Taken together, these results suggest that system xc(-) plays a key role in the inflammatory reaction underlying experimental stroke.
Subject(s)
Amino Acid Transport System y+/analysis , Brain Ischemia/complications , Brain Ischemia/diagnostic imaging , Encephalitis/diagnostic imaging , Glutamates/administration & dosage , Positron-Emission Tomography/methods , Pyrazoles/administration & dosage , Pyrimidines/administration & dosage , Animals , Astrocytes/enzymology , Astrocytes/physiology , Disease Models, Animal , Encephalitis/pathology , Longitudinal Studies , Microglia/enzymology , Microglia/physiology , RatsABSTRACT
This Letter describes synthesis, SAR, and biological activity of (2-oxo-1,4-benzodiazepin-3-yl)-succinamides as inhibitors of γ-secretase mediated signaling of Notch receptors. Optimization of this series led to the identification of BMS-871 (compound 30) which displayed robust in vivo efficacy in Notch-dependent leukemia and solid tumor xenograft models.
Subject(s)
Antineoplastic Agents/administration & dosage , Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology , Benzodiazepinones/administration & dosage , Benzodiazepinones/pharmacology , Receptors, Notch/antagonists & inhibitors , Administration, Oral , Animals , Antineoplastic Agents/chemistry , Benzodiazepinones/chemistry , Cell Line, Tumor , Cell Proliferation/drug effects , Dose-Response Relationship, Drug , Drug Screening Assays, Antitumor , Humans , Mice , Microsomes, Liver/drug effects , Microsomes, Liver/metabolism , Molecular Structure , Neoplasms, Experimental/drug therapy , Neoplasms, Experimental/metabolism , Neoplasms, Experimental/pathology , Receptors, Notch/metabolism , Structure-Activity RelationshipABSTRACT
During brain ischemia, an excessive release of glutamate triggers neuronal death through the overactivation of NMDA receptors (NMDARs); however, the underlying pathways that alter glutamate homeostasis and whether synaptic or extrasynaptic sites are responsible for excess glutamate remain controversial. Here, we monitored ischemia-gated currents in pyramidal cortical neurons in brain slices from rodents in response to oxygen and glucose deprivation (OGD) as a real-time glutamate sensor to identify the source of glutamate release and determined the extent of neuronal damage. Blockade of excitatory amino acid transporters or vesicular glutamate release did not inhibit ischemia-gated currents or neuronal damage after OGD. In contrast, pharmacological inhibition of the cystine/glutamate antiporter dramatically attenuated ischemia-gated currents and cell death after OGD. Compared with control animals, mice lacking a functional cystine/glutamate antiporter exhibited reduced anoxic depolarization and neuronal death in response to OGD. Furthermore, glutamate released by the cystine/glutamate antiporter activated extrasynaptic, but not synaptic, NMDARs, and blockade of extrasynaptic NMDARs reduced ischemia-gated currents and cell damage after OGD. Finally, PET imaging showed increased cystine/glutamate antiporter function in ischemic rats. Altogether, these data suggest that cystine/glutamate antiporter function is increased in ischemia, contributing to elevated extracellular glutamate concentration, overactivation of extrasynaptic NMDARs, and ischemic neuronal death.
Subject(s)
Amino Acid Transport System y+/physiology , Brain Ischemia/etiology , Glutamic Acid/metabolism , Amino Acid Transport System y+/deficiency , Amino Acid Transport System y+/genetics , Animals , Benzoates/pharmacology , Brain Ischemia/pathology , Brain Ischemia/physiopathology , Cell Death , Glutamate Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Glutamate Plasma Membrane Transport Proteins/metabolism , Glycine/analogs & derivatives , Glycine/pharmacology , Ion Channel Gating/physiology , Mice , Mice, Inbred C3H , Mice, Knockout , Pyramidal Cells/drug effects , Pyramidal Cells/pathology , Pyramidal Cells/physiology , Rats , Rats, Sprague-Dawley , Receptors, N-Methyl-D-Aspartate/metabolism , Vesicular Glutamate Transport Proteins/antagonists & inhibitors , Vesicular Glutamate Transport Proteins/physiologyABSTRACT
Boron clusters, and especially dicarba-closo-dodecaboranes, can be used as hydrophobic pharmacophores in the design of new drugs and radiotracers because of their hydrophobic character, spherical structure, and excellent chemical and photochemical stability. In the present paper, the synthesis and in vivo evaluation of (11) C-labeled (1,7-dicarba-closo-dodecaboran-1-yl)-N-{[(2S)-1-ethylpyrrolidin-2-yl]methyl}amide, an analog of the D2 receptor ligand [(11) C]raclopride, is described. The radiosynthesis was approached by reaction of the demethylated precursor with [(11) C]CH3 I in basic media; moderate radiochemical yields (18.2 ± 2.8%, decay corrected), and excellent radiochemical purities (>98%) were obtained in overall synthesis time of ~50 min. In vivo assays showed a biodistribution pattern with significant uptake in liver, kidneys and lungs at short times (t = 4 min) after administration and increasing accumulation in bladder at longer times (t ≥ 14.5 min). Although brain positron emission tomography scans showed good blood brain barrier penetration, the high unspecific uptake observed in different brain regions impedes its applicability as D2 receptor ligand.
