Unraveling the role of galectin-3 in cardiac pathology and physiology.

Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is a carbohydrate-binding protein with multiple functions. Gal-3 regulates cell growth, proliferation, and apoptosis by orchestrating cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. It is implicated in the development and progression of cardiovascular disease, and its expression is increased in patients with heart failure. In atherosclerosis, Gal-3 promotes monocyte recruitment to the arterial wall boosting inflammation and atheroma. In acute myocardial infarction (AMI), the expression of Gal-3 increases in infarcted and remote zones from the beginning of AMI, and plays a critical role in macrophage infiltration, differentiation to M1 phenotype, inflammation and interstitial fibrosis through collagen synthesis. Genetic deficiency of Gal-3 delays wound healing, impairs cardiac remodeling and function after AMI. On the contrary, Gal-3 deficiency shows opposite results with improved remodeling and function in other cardiomyopathies and in hypertension. Pharmacologic inhibition with non-selective inhibitors is also protective in cardiac disease. Finally, we recently showed that Gal-3 participates in normal aging. However, genetic absence of Gal-3 in aged mice exacerbates pathological hypertrophy and increases fibrosis, as opposed to reduced fibrosis shown in cardiac disease. Despite some gaps in understanding its precise mechanisms of action, Gal-3 represents a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and the management of cardiac aging. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the role of Gal-3 in the pathophysiology of heart failure, atherosclerosis, hypertension, myocarditis, and ischemic heart disease. Furthermore, we describe the physiological role of Gal-3 in cardiac aging.

Cardiac Natriuretic Peptide Profiles in Chronic Hypertension by Single or Sequentially Combined Renovascular and DOCA-Salt Treatments.

The involvement of natriuretic peptides was studied during the hypertrophic remodeling transition mediated by sequential exposure to chronic hemodynamic overload. We induced hypertension in rats by pressure (renovascular) or volume overload (DOCA-salt) during 6 and 12 weeks of treatment. We also studied the consecutive combination of both models in inverse sequences: RV 6 weeks/DS 6 weeks and DS 6 weeks/RV 6 weeks. All treated groups developed hypertension. Cardiac hypertrophy and left ventricular ANP gene expression were more pronounced in single DS than in single RV groups. BNP gene expression was positively correlated with left ventricular hypertrophy only in RV groups, while ANP gene expression was positively correlated with left ventricular hypertrophy only in DS groups. Combined models exhibited intermediate values between those of single groups at 6 and 12 weeks. The latter stimulus associated to the second applied overload is less effective than the former to trigger cardiac hypertrophy and to increase ANP and BNP gene expression. In addition, we suggest a correlation of ANP synthesis with volume overload and of BNP synthesis with pressure overload-induced hypertrophy after a prolonged treatment. Volume and pressure overload may be two mechanisms, among others, involved in the differential regulation of ANP and BNP gene expression in hypertrophied left ventricles. Plasma ANP levels reflect a response to plasma volume increase and volume overload, while circulating BNP levels seem to be regulated by cardiac BNP synthesis and ventricular hypertrophy.

Nebivolol is more effective than atenolol for blood pressure variability attenuation and target organ damage prevention in L-NAME hypertensive rats.

ß-Adrenergic blockers are no longer recommended as first-line therapy due to the reduced cardioprotection of traditional ß-blockers compared with other antihypertensive drugs. It is unknown whether third-generation ß-blockers share the limitations of traditional ß-blockers. The aim of the present study was to compare the effects of nebivolol or atenolol on central and peripheral systolic blood pressure (SBP) and its variability and target organ damage (TOD) in N-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) hypertensive rats. Male Wistar rats were treated with L-NAME for 8 weeks together with oral administration of nebivolol 30 mg/kg (n = 8), atenolol 90 mg/kg (n = 8), or vehicle (n = 8). The control group was composed of vehicle-treated Wistar rats. SBP and its variability, as well as echocardiographic parameters, were assessed during the last 2 weeks of treatment. Tissue levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and transforming growth factor ß (TGF-ß), and histopathological parameters were evaluated in the left ventricle and aorta. Nebivolol had a greater ability than atenolol to decrease central SBP and mid-term and short-term blood pressure variability (BPV) in L-NAME rats. Echocardiographic analysis showed that nebivolol was more effective than atenolol on E/A wave ratio normalization. Compared with atenolol treatment, nebivolol had a greater protective effect on different TOD markers, inducing a decrease in collagen deposition and a reduction in the proinflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α in the left ventricle and aorta. Our findings suggest that the adverse hemodynamic profile and the reduced cardiovascular protection reported with traditional ß-blockers must not be carried forward to third-generation ß-blockers.

Genetic Deletion of Galectin-3 Alters the Temporal Evolution of Macrophage Infiltration and Healing Affecting the Cardiac Remodeling and Function after Myocardial Infarction in Mice.

We studied the role of galectin-3 (Gal-3) in the expression of alternative activation markers (M2) on macrophage, cytokines, and fibrosis through the temporal evolution of healing, ventricular remodeling, and function after myocardial infarction (MI). C57BL/6J and Gal-3 knockout mice (Lgals3-/-) were subjected to permanent coronary ligation or sham. We studied i) mortality, ii) macrophage infiltration and expression of markers of alternative activation, iii) cytokine, iv) matrix metalloproteinase-2 activity, v) fibrosis, and vi) cardiac function and remodeling. At 1 week post-MI, lack of Gal-3 markedly attenuated F4/80+ macrophage infiltration and significantly increased the expression of Mrc1 and Chil1, markers of M2 macrophages at the MI zone. Levels of IL-10, IL-6, and matrix metalloproteinase-2 were significantly increased, whereas tumor necrosis factor-α, transforming growth factor-ß, and fibrosis were remarkably attenuated at the infarct zone. In Gal-3 knockout mice, scar thinning ratio, expansion, and cardiac remodeling and function were severely affected from the onset of MI. At 4 weeks post-MI, the natural evolution of fibrosis in Gal-3 knockout mice was also affected. Our results suggest that Gal-3 is essential for wound healing because it regulates the dynamics of macrophage infiltration, proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine expression, and fibrosis along the temporal evolution of MI in mice. The deficit of Gal-3 affected the dynamics of wound healing, thus aggravating the evolution of remodeling and function.

Galectin-1 as an Emerging Mediator of Cardiovascular Inflammation: Mechanisms and Therapeutic Opportunities.

Galectin-1 (Gal-1), an evolutionarily conserved ß-galactoside-binding lectin, controls immune cell homeostasis and tempers acute and chronic inflammation by blunting proinflammatory cytokine synthesis, engaging T-cell apoptotic programs, promoting expansion of T regulatory (Treg) cells, and deactivating antigen-presenting cells. In addition, this lectin promotes angiogenesis by co-opting the vascular endothelial growth factor receptor (VEGFR) 2 signaling pathway. Since a coordinated network of immunomodulatory and proangiogenic mediators controls cardiac homeostasis, this lectin has been proposed to play a key hierarchical role in cardiac pathophysiology via glycan-dependent regulation of inflammatory responses. Here, we discuss the emerging roles of Gal-1 in cardiovascular diseases including acute myocardial infarction, heart failure, Chagas cardiomyopathy, pulmonary hypertension, and ischemic stroke, highlighting underlying anti-inflammatory mechanisms and therapeutic opportunities. Whereas Gal-1 administration emerges as a potential novel treatment option in acute myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke, Gal-1 blockade may contribute to attenuate pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Efecto de la administración de atenolol o nebivolol sobre la variabilidad de la presión arterial y su impacto sobre el daño de órgano blanco en ratas espontáneamente hipertensas / Effect of Atenolol or Nebivolol Administration on Blood Pressure Variability and its Impact on White Organ Damage in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats

Introducción: Tradicionalmente se ha considerado que el riesgo cardiovascular asociado con la hipertensión es producto de la elevación sostenida de la presión arterial, que lleva al daño de órgano blanco. En los últimos años se ha descripto que otros factores, como la variabilidad de la presión arterial y la presión arterial central, también afectan directamente el daño de órgano blanco. Objetivo: Determinar los efectos de la administración crónica de atenolol o nebivolol sobre la variabilidad de la presión arterial a corto plazo y el daño de órgano blanco a nivel del ventrículo izquierdo y de la aorta. Material y métodos: Se incluyeron ratas espontáneamente hipertensas (REH) que fueron tratadas durante 8 semanas con una única administración diaria de atenolol, nebivolol o vehículo. Se determinaron la presión arterial y su variabilidad a corto plazo y se realizó ecocardiografía. Se extrajeron el ventrículo izquierdo y la aorta torácica para cuantificar la expresión del factor de crecimiento transformante b y realizar estudios histológicos. Resultados: El tratamiento crónico con nebivolol redujo la presión arterial media (PAM) y su variabilidad en mayor medida que el atenolol (PAM WKY: 118,6 ± 8,0 mm Hg; REH: 174,6 ± 2,1ª mm Hg; REH-atenolol: 155,2 ± 2,1a, b mm Hg; REH-nebivolol: 122,3 ± 2,3b, c mm Hg; desviación estándar de la PAM WKY: 3,8 ± 0,2 mm Hg; REH: 6,2 ± 0,3ª mm Hg; REH-atenolol: 5,2 ± 0,3a, b mm Hg; REH-nebivolol: 4,2 ± 0,2b, c mm Hg; ªp < 0,05 vs. ratas WKY; b p < 0,05 vs. REH; c p < 0,05 vs. REH-atenolol). Conclusiones: El análisis del daño de órgano blanco establece que el nebivolol reduce el contenido de fibrosis ventricular, disminuye el espesor de la media aórtica e induce una mayor reducción de la sobreexpresión del factor de crecimiento transformante b en ambos órganos en comparación con REH tratadas con vehículo o atenolol. Estos hallazgos sugieren que la mayor reducción de la presión arterial central, junto con la disminución de la labilidad de la presión arterial, contribuiría en la superior protección del daño de órgano blanco por el nebivolol respecto del atenolol.

Effects of Endurance Training on Myocardial Hypertrophy and Ventricular Function in a Transgenic Mouse Model with sympathetic Hyperactivity / Efectos del ejercicio intenso sobre la hipertrofia miocárdica y la función ventricular en un modelo de ratón transgénico con hiperactividad simpática

Background: Previous studies have shown that endurance training (ET) reduces inotropic, chronotropic and lusitropic reserve in normal mice. Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of endurance training on the inotropic and chronotropic reserve of trans-genic mice with sympathetic hyperactivity induced by overexpression of the cardiac GSα protein. Methods: Endurance training consisted in two daily 90-min sessions, 6 days/week, during 4 weeks. Four experimental groups were formed: 1) non-transgenic sedentary (nonTG Sed); 2) transgenic sedentary (TG Sed); 3) nonTG+ET and 4) TG+ET. Results: Endurance training induced myocardial hypertrophy [left ventricular weight (g)/tibial length (mm)] from 5.3±0.3 and 5.5±0.2 in nonTG Sed and TG Sed to 6.8±0.1 and 6.8±0.3 in nonTG+ET and TG+ET, respectively (p<0.05 nonTG Sed vs. nonTG+ET and TG Sed vs. TG+ET). Isoproterenol administration (56 ng/kg) increased +dP/dtmax by 63±10% in nonTG Sed (p<0.05 vs. baseline), 34±2% in TG Sed (p<0.05 vs. baseline and p<0.05 vs. nonTG Sed), 36±7% in non TG+ET (p<0.05 vs. base-line) and 36±7% in TG+ET (p<0.05 vs. baseline). Heart rate (beats/min) increased from 301±15 to 528±37 in nonTG Sed (p<0.05 vs. baseline), from 519±57 to 603±41 in TG Sed, from 300±16 to 375±20 in nonTG+ET (p<0.05 vs. baseline) and from 484±18 to 515±21 in TG+ET. Interstitial collagen was similar among groups. Conclusions: These results suggest that endurance training decreases inotropic and chronotropic reserve without generating struc-tural changes associated to pathological hypertrophy. The presence of sympathetic hyperactivity does not modify this response.

Introducción: En estudios previos mostramos que el ejercicio intenso (EI) reduce la reserva inotrópica, cronotrópica y lusitrópica en ratones normales. Objetivo: Evaluar el efecto del ejercicio intenso sobre la reserva inotrópica y cronotrópica en un modelo de ratones transgénicos con sobreexpresión cardíaca de la proteína Gsα, que induce un cuadro de hiperactividad simpática. Material y métodos: El ejercicio consistió en dos sesiones diarias de 90 minutos de natación, 6 días/semana durante 4 semanas. Se utilizaron cuatro grupos experimentales: 1: sedentario no transgénico (noTG Sed); 2: sedentario TG (TG Sed); 3: noTG+EI y 4: TG+EI. Resultados: El ejercicio indujo el desarrollo de hipertrofia miocárdica [índice peso del ventrículo izquierdo (g)/longitud de la tibia (mm)] desde 5,3±0,3 y 5,5±0,2 en noTG Sed y TG Sed a 6,8±0,1 y 6,8±0,3 en noTG+EI y TG+EI, respectivamente (p<0,05 noTG Sed vs. noTG+EI y TG Sed vs. TG+EI). La administración de isoproterenol (56 ng/kg) incrementó la +dP/dtmáx 63% ±10% en noTG Sed (p<0,05 vs. basal); 34% ±2% en TG Sed (p<0,05 vs.basal y p< 0,05 vs. noTG Sed); 36% ±7% en noTG+EI (p<0,05 vs. basal) y 36% ±7% en TG+EI (p<0,05 vs.basal). La frecuencia cardíaca aumentó de 301±15 a 528±37 latidos/min en noTG Sed (p<0,05 vs. basal), de 519±57 a 603±41 latidos/min en TG Sed, de 300±16 a 375±20 en noTG+EI (p<0,05 vs. basal) y de 484±18 a 515±21 en TG+EI. El colágeno intersticial fue similar entre los grupos. Conclusiones: Estos resultados sugieren que el ejercicio intenso disminuye la reserva inotrópica y cronotrópica sin generar cambios estructurales vinculados a la hipertrofia patológica. La presencia de hiperactividad simpática no modifica esta respuesta.

Efecto del déficit de galectina-3 sobre la remodelación ventricular posoclusión coronaria en ratones / Effect of Galectin-3 Deficit on Ventricular Remodeling After Coronary Occlusion in Mice

Introducción: La galectina-3 (Gal-3) es una lectina que regula la respuesta inmune. Sin embargo, su rol en la remodelación y la función ventricular posinfarto de miocardio (IM) se desconoce. Objetivo: Estudiar si el déficit de Gal-3 empeora la remodelación y la función ventricular pos-IM en ratones. Material y métodos: Se utilizaron ratones machos Gal-3 KO y su respectivo control C57 con ligadura de la coronaria descendente anterior o sham. Se conformaron cuatro grupos experimentales: C57 sham, Gal-3 KO sham, C57 IM y Gal-3 KO IM. A los 7 días poscirugía se les realizó ecocardiografía seguida de eutanasia y autopsia; se cuantificó el tamaño del IM y la fibrosis en cortes teñidos con tricrómico de Masson y picrosirius red, respectivamente, el infiltrado de macrófagos y la expresión de IL-6. Resultados: Los diámetros del ventrículo izquierdo se incrementaron significativamente en el grupo C57 IM respecto del sham y dicho incremento fue aún mayor en el grupo Gal-3 KO IM. Además, la fracción de eyección disminuyó desde 47% ± 2% a 37% ± 3% en C57 IM y Gal-3 KO IM, respectivamente (p < 0,02). El tamaño del IM aumentó desde 39,4% ± 5% en los ratones C57 IM a 66,8% ± 5% en los animales Gal-3 KO (p = 0,002). El infiltrado de macrófagos y la fibrosis en el área del IM se redujeron en los ratones Gal-3 KO IM (p < 0,001 C57 IM vs. Gal-3 KO IM), mientras que la concentración de IL-6 en la pared libre del ventrículo izquierdo fue similar entre grupos (p = ns). Conclusiones: La deleción de Gal-3 es un factor importante para la cinética del proceso reparativo regulando el infiltrado de macrófagos y el grado de fibrosis de la zona infartada, como también en la evolución temprana de la remodelación pos-IM.

Background: Galectin-3 (Gal-3) is a lectin that regulates the immune response. However, its role in remodeling and ventricular function after myocardial infarction (MI) is unknown. Objective: The purpose of this study was to analyze whether Gal-3 deficit impairs remodeling and ventricular function after MI in mice. Methods: Male Gal-3 KO mice and their respective C57 controls underwent anterior descending coronary artery ligation or sham operation. Animals were then divided into four experimental groups: 1) C57 sham; 2) Gal-3 KO sham; 3) C57 MI and 4) Gal-3 KO MI. Seven days after surgery, an echocardiography was performed followed by euthanasia. Heart samples were collected to measure MI size and fibrosis using Masson's trichrome and picrosirius red, respectively, and assess macrophage infiltration and IL-6 expression. Results: Left ventricular diameters were significantly increased in the C57 MI group compared with sham animals and the increase was even higher in the Gal-3 KO MI group. Moreover, ejection fraction decreased to 47%±2% in C57 MI and 37%±3% in Gal-3 KO MI mice (p<0.02), and infarct size increased from 39.4%±5% in C57 MI to 66.8%±5% in Gal-3 KO MI animals (p=0.002). Macrophage infiltration and fibrosis in the MI area were significantly reduced in Gal-3 KO MI mice (p<0.001 C57 MI vs. Gal-3KO MI) without changes of IL-6 concentration in the left ventricular free wall (p=ns). Conclusions: Gal-3 gene deletion is an important factor in repair kinetics, regulating macrophage infiltration and the degree of fibrosis in the infarct area, as well as early remodeling after MI.

Efectos del ejercicio intenso sobre la función ventricular basal y la respuesta inotrópica, cronotrópica y lusitrópica en ratones / Effects of Strenuous Exercise on Baseline Ventricular Function and Inotropic, Chronotropic and Lusitropic Response in Mice

Introducción El ejercicio leve a moderado reduce los factores de riesgo cardiovascular, mejora estados patológicos previamente establecidos y produce el desarrollo de hipertrofia cardíaca adaptativa. Sin embargo, la respuesta del miocardio frente a un tipo de ejercicio intenso no es del todo conocida. Objetivo Estudiar la función ventricular basal y la reserva miocárdica (respuesta inotrópica, cronotró-pica y lusitrópica frente a un agonista ß-adrenérgico como el isoproterenol) luego de un tipo de ejercicio intenso tanto in vivo como in vitro en ratones. Material y métodos Se utilizaron ratones macho de tres meses de edad de la cepa FVB. El protocolo de ejercicio consistió en dos sesiones diarias de 90 minutos de natación, 6 días/semana durante 4 semanas. Se conformaron dos grupos experimentales: 1) Sedentario: no realiza ejercicio y 2) Ejercicio: realiza protocolo completo de natación intenso. Resultados Al finalizar el protocolo hubo un incremento de la masa ventricular izquierda del 27,9% ± 4%, con función ventricular basal conservada. Sin embargo, hubo una disminución de la respuesta miocárdica al isoproterenol tanto in vivo como in vitro, sin observarse modificaciones en el colágeno intersticial. Conclusiones En nuestras condiciones experimentales, el protocolo de natación, con características de ejercicio intenso, produjo una hipertrofia cardíaca moderada con características mixtas de hipertrofia adaptativa y no adaptativa. Si bien la función basal se mantuvo conservada y no hubo cambios en el colágeno intersticial, se observó una disminución en la reserva inotrópica, cronotrópica y lusitrópica.(AU)

Mild to moderate exercise reduces cardiovascular risk factors, improves pre-existing pathologic conditions and develops adaptive cardiac hypertrophy. However, the myocardial response to strenuous exercise is scarcely known. Objective The aim of this study was to evaluate baseline ventricular function and myocardial reserve (inotropic, chronotropic and lusitropic response to the ß-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol) in vivo and in vitro in mice following strenuous exercise. Methods Adult male FVB mice (3 months old) were used. The protocol exercise consisted in 90 min swimming sessions twice a day, 6 days/week for 4 weeks. Two experimental groups were evaluated: 1) sedentary group, with no exercise; and 2) exercise group, with full strenuous swimming protocol. Results At the end of the protocol, left ventricular mass increased by 27.9±4% with preserved baseline left ventricular function. In vivo and in vitro myocardial response to isoproterenol decreased with no changes in interstitial collagen. Conclusions Under our experimental conditions, a strenuous swimming protocol produced moderate cardiac hypertrophy with adaptive and maladaptive hypertrophic characteristics. Although baseline ventricular function was preserved with no changes in interstitial collagen, inotropic, chronotropic and lusitropic reserve decreased.(AU)

Efectos del ejercicio intenso sobre la función ventricular basal y la respuesta inotrópica, cronotrópica y lusitrópica en ratones / Effects of Strenuous Exercise on Baseline Ventricular Function and Inotropic, Chronotropic and Lusitropic Response in Mice

Introducción El ejercicio leve a moderado reduce los factores de riesgo cardiovascular, mejora estados patológicos previamente establecidos y produce el desarrollo de hipertrofia cardíaca adaptativa. Sin embargo, la respuesta del miocardio frente a un tipo de ejercicio intenso no es del todo conocida. Objetivo Estudiar la función ventricular basal y la reserva miocárdica (respuesta inotrópica, cronotró-pica y lusitrópica frente a un agonista ß-adrenérgico como el isoproterenol) luego de un tipo de ejercicio intenso tanto in vivo como in vitro en ratones. Material y métodos Se utilizaron ratones macho de tres meses de edad de la cepa FVB. El protocolo de ejercicio consistió en dos sesiones diarias de 90 minutos de natación, 6 días/semana durante 4 semanas. Se conformaron dos grupos experimentales: 1) Sedentario: no realiza ejercicio y 2) Ejercicio: realiza protocolo completo de natación intenso. Resultados Al finalizar el protocolo hubo un incremento de la masa ventricular izquierda del 27,9% ± 4%, con función ventricular basal conservada. Sin embargo, hubo una disminución de la respuesta miocárdica al isoproterenol tanto in vivo como in vitro, sin observarse modificaciones en el colágeno intersticial. Conclusiones En nuestras condiciones experimentales, el protocolo de natación, con características de ejercicio intenso, produjo una hipertrofia cardíaca moderada con características mixtas de hipertrofia adaptativa y no adaptativa. Si bien la función basal se mantuvo conservada y no hubo cambios en el colágeno intersticial, se observó una disminución en la reserva inotrópica, cronotrópica y lusitrópica.

Mild to moderate exercise reduces cardiovascular risk factors, improves pre-existing pathologic conditions and develops adaptive cardiac hypertrophy. However, the myocardial response to strenuous exercise is scarcely known. Objective The aim of this study was to evaluate baseline ventricular function and myocardial reserve (inotropic, chronotropic and lusitropic response to the ß-adrenergic agonist isoproterenol) in vivo and in vitro in mice following strenuous exercise. Methods Adult male FVB mice (3 months old) were used. The protocol exercise consisted in 90 min swimming sessions twice a day, 6 days/week for 4 weeks. Two experimental groups were evaluated: 1) sedentary group, with no exercise; and 2) exercise group, with full strenuous swimming protocol. Results At the end of the protocol, left ventricular mass increased by 27.9±4% with preserved baseline left ventricular function. In vivo and in vitro myocardial response to isoproterenol decreased with no changes in interstitial collagen. Conclusions Under our experimental conditions, a strenuous swimming protocol produced moderate cardiac hypertrophy with adaptive and maladaptive hypertrophic characteristics. Although baseline ventricular function was preserved with no changes in interstitial collagen, inotropic, chronotropic and lusitropic reserve decreased.

Ludwig: the bioengineer.

On the basis of the strict exclusion of the vis vitalis, the demand was raised by Carl Ludwig, Helmholtz, Du Bois-Reymond, and Brucke for a physiology which was causal-analytical and physically and chemically experimental. If, out of these four investigators, we pick Ludwig as the actual founder of modern physiology, the grounds for this must be justified specifically. That modern physiology is not to be contemplated without the works of the three great students of Johannes Muller is explicitly emphasized. However, Carl Ludwig occupies a special position for physiology.

The allometric model in chronic myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: An allometric relationship between different electrocardiogram (ECG) parameters and infarcted ventricular mass was assessed in a myocardial infarction (MI) model in New Zealand rabbits. METHODS: A total of fifteen animals were used, out of which ten underwent left anterior descending coronary artery ligation to induce infarction (7-35% area). Myocardial infarction (MI) evolved and stabilized during a three month-period, after which, rabbits were sacrificed and the injured area was histologically confirmed. Right before sacrifice, ECGs were obtained to correlate several of its parameters to the infarcted mass. The latter was normalized after combining data from planimetry measurements and heart weight. The following ECG parameters were studied: RR and PR intervals, P-wave duration (PD), QRS duration (QRSD) and amplitude (QRSA), Q-wave (QA), R-wave (RA) and S-wave (SA) amplitudes, T-wave peak amplitude (TA), the interval from the peak to the end of the T-wave (TPE), ST-segment deviation (STA), QT interval (QT), corrected QT and JT intervals. Corrected QT was analyzed with different correction formulae, i.e., Bazett (QTB), Framingham (QTFRA), Fridericia (QTFRI), Hodge (QTHO) and Matsunaga (QTMA) and compared thereafter. The former variables and infarcted ventricular mass were then fitted to the allometric equation in terms of deviation from normality, in turn derived after ECGs in 5 healthy rabbits. RESULTS: Six variables (JT, QTB, QA, SA, TA and STA) presented statistical differences among leads. QT showed the best allometric fit (r = 0.78), followed by TA (r = 0.77), STA (r = 0.75), QTFRA (r = 0.72), TPE (r = 0.69), QTFRI (r = 0.68) and QTMA (r = 0.68). Corrected QT's (QTFRA, QTFRI and QTMA) performed worse than the uncorrected counterpart (QT), the former scaling allometrically with similar goodness of fits. CONCLUSIONS: QT, TA, STA and TPE could possibly be used to assess infarction extent in an old MI event through the allometric model as a first approach. Moreover, the TPE also produced a good allometric scaling, leading to the potential existence of promising allometric indexes to diagnose malignant arrhythmias.

Ventricular function and natriuretic peptides in sequentially combined models of hypertension.

Hemodynamic parameters and natriuretic peptide levels were evaluated in cardiac hypertrophy produced by sequentially applied renovascular (RV) and deoxycorticosterone acetate-salt (DS) models of hypertension. We studied hypertensive rats by RV or DS treatment at 2 and 4 wk, as well as by the combination of 2 wk of each treatment in an inverse sequence: RV 2 wk/DS 2 wk (RV2/DS2) and DS 2 wk/RV 2 wk (DS2/RV2). The in vivo cardiac function, interstitial fibrosis, and synthesis and secretion of types A (ANP) and B (BNP) natriuretic peptides were monitored in hypertensive models compared with their corresponding sham (Sh2, Sh4). There were no differences in relaxation parameters among RV or DS groups and combined treatments. Left ventricular +dP/dt(max) increased only in RV4 (P < 0.01 vs. Sh4), and this increase was abolished in RV2/DS2. Interstitial collagen concentration increased after 4 wk in both RV4 and RV2/DS2 groups. Although there were no changes in collagen concentration in either DS2 or DS4 groups, clipping after 2 wk of DS (DS2/RV2) remarkably stimulated interstitial fibrosis (P < 0.01 vs. DS2). Plasma BNP increased in RV treatment at 4 wk (P < 0.001 vs. Sh4), but not in DS. Interestingly, RV applied after the 2 wk of DS treatment induced a marked increase in BNP levels (P < 0.001 vs. Sh4). In this regard, plasma BNP appears to be a reliable indicator of pressure overload. Our results suggest that the second stimulus of mechanical overload in combined models of hypertension determines the evolution of hypertrophy and synthesis and secretion of ANP and BNP.

Effect of early versus late AT(1) receptor blockade with losartan on postmyocardial infarction ventricular remodeling in rabbits.

To characterize the temporal activation of the renin-angiotensin system after myocardial infarction (MI) in rabbits, we examined cardiac ANG II type 1 receptor (AT(1)R) expression and ANG II levels from 3 h to 35 days. The effects of losartan (12.5 mg.kg(-1).day(-1)) on functional and histomorphometric parameters when treatment was initiated early (3 h) and late (day 15) post-MI and maintained for different periods of time [short term (4 days), midterm (20 days), and long term (35 days)] were also studied. AT(1)R expression increased in the MI zone at 15 and 35 days (P < 0.05). ANG II levels increased (P < 0.05) in the non-MI zone at 24 h and in the MI zone as well as in plasma at 4 days and then progressively decreased until 35 days. The survival rate was significantly lower in untreated MI and early long-term-treated animals. Diastolic pressure-volume curves in MI at 35 and 56 days shifted to the right (P < 0.05). This shift was even more pronounced in long-term-treated groups (P < 0.05). Contractility decreased (P < 0.05 vs. sham) in the untreated and long-term-treated groups and was attenuated in the midterm-treated group. The early administration of losartan reduced RAM 11-positive macrophages from 4.15 +/- 0.05 to 3.05 +/- 0.02 cells/high-power field (HPF; P < 0.05) and CD45 RO-positive lymphocytes from 2.23 +/- 0.05 to 1.48 +/- 0.01 cells/HPF (P < 0.05) in the MI zone at 4 days. Long-term treatment reduced the scar collagen (MI: 70.50 +/- 2.35% and MI + losartan: 57.50 +/- 2.48, P < 0.05), determined the persistency of RAM 11-positive macrophages (3.02 +/- 0.13 cells/HPF) and CD45 RO-positive lymphocytes (2.77 +/- 0.58 cells/HPF, P < 0.05 vs. MI), and reduced the scar thinning ratio at 35 days (P < 0.05). Consequently, the temporal expressions of cardiac AT(1)R and ANG II post-MI in rabbits are different from those described in other species. Long-term treatment unfavorably modified post-MI remodeling, whereas midterm treatment attenuated this harmful effect. The delay in wound healing (early reduction and late persistency of inflammatory infiltrate) and adverse remodeling observed in long-term-treated animals might explain the unfavorable effect observed in rabbits.

Effects of overexpansion on stents' recoil, symmetry/asymmetry, and neointimal hyperplasia in aortas of hypercholesterolemic rabbits.

BACKGROUND: It is not known whether overexpansion modifies stent recoil, symmetric distribution of struts, and neointimal hyperplasia. OBJECTIVES: The objectives were (a) to evaluate whether stent overexpansion modifies the geometric configuration of the stent in the arterial wall, (b) to determine the relationship between overexpansion and stent recoil, and (c) to evaluate the relationship between the distribution of struts and neointimal hyperplasia. METHODS: Twenty tubular stainless steel 316L stents (3.0 and 3.5 mm in diameter) were implanted at 20 and 10 atm, respectively, in the abdominal aorta of New Zealand rabbits fed a hypercholesterolemic diet (1% cholesterol). Sham operations were also performed in seven animals. Eight weeks after implantation or sham operation, an intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) study was performed to measure stent recoil and aid in stent classification (symmetric or asymmetric) according to strut distribution. The degree of injury and neointimal hyperplasia were also evaluated in hematoxylin-eosin stained sections. RESULTS: The symmetry/asymmetry of stents assessed by IVUS, as well as the neointimal hyperplasia, was similar in both groups. Stent recoil was significantly greater in the 3.0-mm stent (overexpanded) group (0.28+/-0.02 mm), as compared with stent recoil in the 3.5-mm stent group (0.10+/-0.01 mm, P<.05). The neointimal hyperplasia in histological slices, independent of the implant technique, was predominantly in zones with higher strut concentration as compared with zones with fewer struts. CONCLUSIONS: Stent overexpansion enhanced stent recoil and did not modify symmetric and asymmetric strut distribution. Neointimal hyperplasia was not modified by the implant technique. Interestingly, significant hyperplasia was observed in locations with greater strut concentration, independent of overexpansion.

Atrial natriuretic peptide behaviour and myocyte hypertrophic profile in combined pressure and volume-induced cardiac hypertrophy.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and hormonal profile in cardiac hypertrophy resulting from sequentially applied overloads. METHODS: We studied Sprague-Dawley rats with renovascular hypertension (RV), where pressure overload predominates, or deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-salt (DS), where volume overload predominates, at 2 and 4 weeks of treatment, and the combination of both models in inverse sequence: RV 2 weeks/DS 2 weeks (RV2/DS2) and DS 2 weeks/RV 2 weeks (DS2/RV2), and their sham controls (Sh). RESULTS: Blood pressure and cardiomyocyte diameter increased to a similar extent in RV and DS at 2 and 4 weeks and in combined models. Cardiomyocyte length increased remarkably in the DS4 group. Circulating atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) was elevated in all hypertensive groups after 2 and 4 weeks. The RV2/DS2 group showed similar plasma ANP levels to RV4, but DS2/RV2 exhibited a three-fold increase in ANP levels (P<0.001 versus Sh4, DS2 and DS4). Atrial ANP mRNA remained unchanged in all groups. DS treatment alone or in combination with RV increased left ventricular ANP mRNA, meanwhile only RV treatment increased left ventricular B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) mRNA. Ventricular ANP expression levels, but not circulating ANP, correlated with both cardiomyocyte diameter (r=0.859, P<0.01) and length (r=0.848, P<0.01). Renal expression of natriuretic peptide receptor C (NPR-C) was unchanged in RV4 but decreased to a similar extent in the DS4 group and both combined treatments. CONCLUSION: Morphometric patterns seem to be more related to the paracrine function of the heart than to the secretion of ANP and the endocrine function. Plasma ANP in the DS2/RV2 group could indicate a different evolution of the remodelling process. ANP expression seems to be a more sensitive marker for volume than for pressure overload.

Effects of low-calcium reperfusion and adenosine on diastolic behavior during the transitory systolic overshoot of the stunned myocardium in the rabbit.

The aims of the present study were to determine whether the transitory systolic overshoot (TSO) that occurs in the early reperfusion (R) of the stunned myocardium is accompanied by diastolic alterations, and to determine whether the R with low Ca2+ Krebs-Henseleit's solution or with adenosine modifies these alterations. Isolated-isovolumic rabbit hearts were divided in 3 groups (G). G1 (n = 11) was perfused with Krebs-Henseleit's solution, subjected to 15 min of global ischemia and 30 min R; G2 (n = 10) was reperfused during the first 10 min with Krebs-Henseleit's solution [Ca2+] = 1 mmol/L, which was increased in the perfusate to 1.5 mmol/L up to 20 min R and at 2.5 mmol/L from 20 to 30 min R. G3 (n = 12) was perfused with Krebs-Henseleit's solution with adenosine (0.03 microg x kg(-1) x min(-1)) from 10 min before ischemia and during all R. Left ventricular (LV) +dP/dtmax (mmHg/s), LV end diastolic pressure (LVEDP, mmHg), and 1 relaxation index (t(1/2)) were measured in preischemic state, at 30, 50, 60, 70, 90, and 120 s R, and then at 5 and 30 min R. The +dP/dtmax recovered to 621 +/- 77 mmHg/s (p > 0.05), 346 +/- 31 mmHg/s (p < 0.05 vs. G1), and 533 +/- 76 mmHg/s (p > 0.05) from preischemic value of 730 +/- 39, 690 +/- 32, and 758 +/- 57 in G1, G2, and G3, respectively. The LVEDP in G1 and G3 increased early in the R, and it was negatively correlated with the +dP/dtmax (r = -0.63, p = 0.0369; and r = -0.71, p = 0.0090, respectively). The R with low Ca2+ abolished this correlation and attenuated the TSO phase. The correlation between LVEDP and +dP/dtmax in G1 and G3 and the lack of correlation in G2 suggests there are common mechanisms for the systolic and diastolic alterations during the TSO phase that are possibly related to Ca2+ overload but not with the vascular tone.

Irinotecan-eluting stents inhibited neointimal proliferation in hypercholesterolemic rabbit aortas.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of irinotecan-eluting stents (IS) on neointimal growth in the aortas of hypercholesterolemic rabbits and to determine other local histopathological effects such as necrosis, fibrin, and inflammatory reaction. METHODS: Phosphorylcholine-coated stents were deployed in the aortas of hypercholesterolemic rabbits. Group 1 (control; n = 8) received unloaded stents, group 2 (n = 7) and group 3 (n = 9) received IS with 0.046 mg and 1.29 mg of irinotecan, respectively. Eight weeks after implantation the rabbits were killed. Neointimal thickness (NT) was assessed by morphometry. Semiquantitative injury score (from 0 to 3+) was used to analyze inflammatory infiltrate, fibrin deposits, and necrosis in the stented segments. RESULTS: NT was reduced only in high-doses IS (G1, 167.4 +/- 20.8 mu; G2, 170.24 +/- 21.2 mu; G3, 111.56 +/- 12.7 mu; P < 0.05, G3 vs G1 and G2). Necrosis decreased significantly with IS [1.00 +/- 0.10 in G1 to 0.33 +/- 0.07 and 0.02 +/- 0.01 in G2 and G3, respectively] only in the media layer. The inflammatory infiltrate was present in the three layers of aortas from G1, but only decreased significantly in the intimae layer of the high-dose group [1.50 +/- 0.15 in G1 vs 1.00 +/- 0.18 in G3, P < 0.05]. CONCLUSION: Stents loaded with high-dose irinotecan inhibit NT in the aortas of hypercholesterolemic rabbits. This effect was accompanied by decreased inflammatory infiltrate and media necrosis.

Effects of the early administration of losartan on the functional and morphological aspects of postmyocardial infarction ventricular remodeling in rabbits.

BACKGROUND: The effects of losartan (Los) on ventricular remodeling (VR) remain controversial. The objective was to determine whether early administration of Los to rabbits with myocardial infarction (MI) modifies VR. METHODS: New Zealand rabbits underwent left coronary artery ligation. Four groups were analyzed: Sham (G(1); n = 13), MI (G(2); n = 13), Sham+Los (G(3); n = 13), and MI+Los (G(4); n = 13). Los (12.5 mg/kg/day) was administered from 3 h post-MI and during 35 days. At the end of the protocol, the hearts were isolated and perfused to determine pressure-volume curves (P/V). Hearts were weighed, cut, and stained with picrosirius red. The heart weight (HW)/body weight (BW) ratio was determined. Infarct size (IS;%), septum (SeT, mm) and scar thickness (ST, mm), myocyte area (microm(2)), and width (mum) were measured. RESULTS (X +/- S.E.M.): Los shifted the diastolic left ventricular (LV) P/V relationship to the right in sham and MI (P < .05 vs. sham), with no changes in the systolic relation. IS was G(2) = 25.38 +/- 5.31 and G(4) = 21.85 +/- 4.13 (NS); HW/BW was 0.34+/-0.01, 0.35 +/- 0.02, 0.29 +/- 0.02 (P < .05 vs. G(1) and G(2)), and 0.32 +/- 0.02 in G(1), G(2), G(3), and G(4), respectively. Scar collagen concentration (%) was lower in G(4) (P < .05 vs. G(2)). SeT was lower in G(3) and G(4) (P < .05 vs. G(2)). The width and area of the septum myocytes increased in the untreated infarct, and Los suppressed that increase. CONCLUSION: The early administration of Los unfavorably modified post-MI VR, increasing ventricular dilation, reducing scar collagen concentration and thickness, and inhibiting myocytes width and area increase. The dilation observed in sham animals' hearts suggests that infarct was not the main factor in the dilation of the cavity.