Involvement of TLR6 in the induction of COX-2, PGE2 and IL-10 in macrophages by lipids from virulent S2P and attenuated R1A Babesia bovis strains.

Toll like receptors (TLRs) are involved in the modulation of diverse host genes expression through a complex network of signalling events that allow for an appropriate response to a microbial pathogen. In the present work we used TLR6KO mice in order to study the role of TLR6 in the immune discrimination of lipids from two Babesia bovis strains, attenuated R1A (LA) and virulent S2P (LV), and the consequent macrophage activation. We demonstrated that TLR6 is required for lipid body induction in murine peritoneal macrophages by both LA and LV. Interestingly, as regards IL-10 and COX-2/PGE2 pathway induction by LA and LV, we observed differences in the biological effects produced by these lipid extracts. Our results indicate a role of TLR6 in the down-modulation of these immunoregulators only in the case of LA, whereas this receptor was not implicated in pro-inflammatory TNFα, IL-6 and KC release induced by LA. Remarkably, LV did not exert the down-modulatory effect observed for LA, supporting the notion that LA and LV possess different lipid composition that could correlate with the polar pathogenic effect of both B. bovis strains.

An improved DNA isolation technique for PCR detection of Strongyloides stercoralis in stool samples.

Strongyloides stercoralis is a nematode that causes severe infections in immunocompromised patients. The low parasitic burden of chronically infected patients makes diagnosis difficult to achieve by conventional methods. Here, an in-house (IH) method for the isolation of parasite DNA from stools and a PCR assay for the molecular diagnosis of S. stercoralis were optimized. DNA yield and purity improved with the IH method which included a step of incubation of stool samples with a glycine-SDS buffer and mechanical disruption prior to DNA extraction. For the PCR assay, the addition of bovine serum albumin was required to neutralize inhibitors present in stool. The analytical sensitivity of the PCR using DNA as template, isolated with the IH method, was superior to the commercial one. This study demonstrates that a combined method that adds the step of glycine-SDS buffer incubation plus mechanical disruption prior to DNA isolation with the commercial kit increased PCR sensitivity to levels of the IH method. Finally, our assay was tested on 17 clinical samples. With the IH method for DNA isolation, a S. stercoralis specific band was detected by PCR in the first stool sample in all patients (17/17), while with the commercial kit, our S. stercoralis-specific band was only observed in 7 samples. The superior efficiency of the IH and combined methods over the commercial kit was demonstrated when applied to clinical samples with low parasitic burden. These results show that the DNA extraction procedure is a key to increase sensitivity of the S. stercoralis PCR assay in stool samples. The method developed here could help to improve the molecular diagnosis of S. stercoralis.

Babesia bovis: lipids from virulent S2P and attenuated R1A strains trigger differential signalling and inflammatory responses in bovine macrophages.

The intra-erythrocytic protozoan Babesia bovis is an economically important pathogen that causes an acute and often fatal infection in adult cattle. Babesiosis limitation depends on the early activation of macrophages, essential cells of the host innate immunity, which can generate an inflammatory response mediated by cytokines and nitric oxide (NO). Herein, we demonstrate in bovine macrophages that lipids from B. bovis attenuated R1A strain (LA) produced a stronger NO release, an early TNFα mRNA induction and 2-fold higher IL-12p35 mRNA levels compared to the lipids of virulent S2P strain (LV). Neither LA nor LV induced anti-inflammatory IL-10. Regarding signalling pathways, we here report that LA induced a significant phosphorylation of p38 and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) whereas LV only induced a reduced activation of ERK1/2. Besides, NF-κB was activated by LA and LV, but LA produced an early degradation of the inhibitor IκB. Interestingly, LV and the majority of its lipid fractions, exerted a significant inhibition of concanavalin A-induced peripheral blood mononuclear cell proliferation with respect to LA and its corresponding lipid fractions. In addition, we determined that animals infected with R1A developed a higher increase in IgM anti-phosphatidylcholine than those inoculated with S2P. Collectively, S2P lipids generated a decreased inflammatory response contributing to the evasion of innate immunity. Moreover, since R1A lipids induced a pro-inflammatory profile, we propose these molecules as good candidates for immunoprophylactic strategies against babesiosis.

Lipids from attenuated and virulent Babesia bovis strains induce differential TLR2-mediated macrophage activation.

Babesia bovis is an intraerythrocytic apicomplexan protozoa of cattle that causes an acute infection with parasite persistence. Babesiosis limitation depends on macrophages, essential effector cells of the host innate defense, which generate inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide. Herein, we report quantitative differences in the lipid composition of merozoites from two B. bovis strains with polar behaviour: attenuated R1A and virulent S2P. Accordingly, we observed a distinct inflammatory response induced by the total lipids of R1A (L(A)) and S2P (L(V)) in murine peritoneal macrophages. L(A) and particularly its fractions phosphatidic acid and phosphatidylserine+phosphatidylinositol (PS+PI), produced a strong activation of these cells with lipid body formation, cyclooxygenase-2 expression and pro-inflammatory TNFalpha, IL-6 and KC secretion. Although L(V) did not activate these cells, the corresponding PS+PI fraction induced TNFalpha, IL-6 and KC release. Therefore, these facts might be suggesting the presence of an inhibitor in L(V). Furthermore, the employment of wild type and toll like receptor 2 knockout (TLR2KO) mice allowed us to demonstrate that macrophage activation by the stimulating lipid fractions was mediated through TLR2. Interestingly, only L(A) activated the extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1 and 2 (ERK1/2). Inhibitory studies employing UO126, indicated that the ERK pathway was required for TNFalpha, IL-6 and KC release. In conclusion, the absence of inflammatory response observed with the lipids of S2P virulent strain could constitute an evasion mechanism of the innate immune response enabling parasite establishment in the host.

Reduction of parasite levels in blood improves pregnancy outcome during experimental Trypanosoma cruzi infection.

Infection with a myotropic Trypanosoma cruzi clone induces maternal fertility failure. In the current work, we evaluated whether reduction of maternal parasitaemia before mating has beneficial effects on pregnancy outcome. Female mice were subjected to benznidazole (Bz) treatment after infection. On day 30 of therapy, mating was assessed and pregnancy outcome was determined on day 14 of gestation. Fetal resorptions diminished in T. cruzi-infected Bz-treated mice compared with T. cruzi-infected untreated mice. This was in agreement with the reduction in the blood/solid tissue parasite load and with the percentage of necrotic foci in placental samples from T. cruzi-infected Bz-treated females. To study eventual changes in the immune homeostasis of T. cruzi-infected Bz-treated mice, activation of the immune system was evaluated at the end of Bz therapy and before mating. We found specific IgG1 reduction resulting in a predominance of specific IgG2a, reduced numbers of CD69+ CD4+ cells and diminished frequency and numbers of CD44+ T cells. Concanavalin A-stimulated splenocytes from T. cruzi-infected Bz-treated mice produced higher amounts of IFN-gamma than T. cruzi-infected untreated mice. These results indicate that reduction of maternal parasite load improves pregnancy outcome. These findings correlate with a favourable modulation of the immune response.

New intermediate hosts in the life cycle of Zygocotyle lunata in South America.

Biomphalaria peregrina was found to be naturally infected with cercariae of Zygocotyle lunata in a pond of the Zoological Garden of Buenos Aires. Mice and chicks were fed metacercariae and gravid adults recovered. Eggs recovered from mice feces were used for experimental infections. Laboratory-reared B. peregrina and 4 other Biomphaluria spp. were successfully infected with Z. lunata miracidia. Biomphaleria glabrata was refractory. Species of Helisoma, the only intermediate hosts of Z. lunata so far reported, have never been found in Argentina. Species of Biomphalaria may be intermediate hosts of Z lunata in the southern region of the Parana River Basin.

Changes in the mouse sciatic nerve action potential after epineural injection of sera from Trypanosoma cruzi infected mice.

Pathology of chronic Chagas' disease involves peripheral nervous system (PNS) compromise. A high prevalence of antibodies reacting with nervous system antigens has been found in the sera of patients and infected animals, although their physiological role in mediating PNS tissue damage is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that epineural injection of sera from Trypanosoma cruzi infected mice affects the characteristics of the sciatic nerve action potential (SNAP) depending on the parasite strain. Sera from mice infected with the reticulotropic/neurotropic RA strain with reactivity against sciatic nerve (RA/Ne+ sera) induced delays on latency and diminished amplitudes 4 days after injection. Sera from mice infected with the myotropic CA-I strain failed to affect SNAP. Purified immunoglobulin (Ig)G from RA/Ne+ also diminished the amplitude of SNAP. Deposits of IgG labelling axonal fibres and/or myelin sheaths were detected in nerves injected with RA/Ne+ sera. No major histological damage or parasite DNA was found in those nerves. The SNAP changes after sera injection were similar to those observed in mice injected with trypomastigotes in the epineurum 17 days before and in chronically infected animals. This investigation suggests that autoantibodies triggered as a consequence of T. cruzi infection are able to mediate, at least in part, the electrophysiological abnormalities observed in PNS during the course of Chagas' disease.

Short report: Schistosoma mansoni miracidia are killed by the defense system of an Argentine strain of Biomphalaria straminea.

Biomphalaria straminea snails from Argentina fail to shed cercariae even if exposed to high doses of Schistosoma mansoni EC miracidia. Alternative explanations for this failure are that miracidia are unable to penetrate the snail's epithelium or that the miracidia are killed by the snail's defense system. To discriminate between these 2 possibilities, B. straminea snails were individually exposed to increasing doses of miracidia. Susceptible B. glabrata were used as controls. Exposed snails were fixed 12 hr after exposure, and histological sections of the whole specimens were examined. Miracidia were seen to penetrate the epithelium of B. straminea and B. glabrata at similar rates (14.7%), independent of the exposure level. Regardless of the miracidial dose, 94% of the penetrating miracidia appeared encapsulated by the B. straminea defense system, whereas in B. glabrata, only 42% of the miracidia underwent encapsulation. These results show that resistance of B. straminea to S. mansoni EC strain is due to an efficient defense system that destroys miracidia once they have penetrated.

Hepatitis C virus and GBV-C/hepatitis G virus in Argentine patients with porphyria cutanea tarda.

To investigate hepatitis C virus (HCV) and GBV-C/hepatitis G virus (HGV) genotype prevalence among HCV-infected porphyria cutanea tarda (PCT) patients, 19 HCV-infected patients with associated PCT were studied. A control group of 53 age-matched HCV-infected patients without associated PCT was selected. Eighteen of the 19 serologically positive HCV-PCT patients showed HCV RNA in serum. Genotype 1b was the most prevalent among both HCV-PCT patients (72.2%; 13/18) and age-matched HCV controls (50.9%; 27/53). Such different genotypic prevalence failed to reach statistical significance (chi(2) with Yates' correction, p = 0.19). The single HCV-PCT patient without detectable HCV RNA was also infected with genogroup 3 GBV-C/HGV. This GBV-C/HGV RNA prevalence (5.3%) among HCV-PCT patients is not statistically different from that observed among Argentine blood donors (5.5%; 11/200). To our knowledge, these results show for the first time the molecular epidemiology of both HCV and GBV-C/HGV associated to PCT in America.

trans-sialidase inhibition assay, a highly sensitive and specific diagnostic test for Chagas' disease.

For the diagnosis of Chagas' disease, the trans-sialidase inhibition assay was able to resolve the results for samples with borderline results, to detect as positive 60% of samples that were negative by conventional serology, and to discriminate idiopathic from chagasic megaviscera or cardiopathy. No cross-reaction with sera from patients with other diseases was observed.

[Trypanosoma cruzi pathology. Strain dependent?]. / Patología por Trypanosoma cruzi. Cepa dependiente?

There is agreement today about the role that the characteristics of the population of Trypanosoma cruzi play in the pathogenesis of the different clinical forms of Chagas disease. In our laboratory, we have studied the outcome of the infection of mice with two populations with polar biological behaviour: RA and CA-I. We have demonstrated that the neuromuscular damage is, in part, mediated by different T cell subsets. We have also observed that the T cell phenotype responsible for the pathology and the targetted tissues depend on the parasite population. Although we found no differences regarding the reactivity of IgG to native nerve structures in sera from mice infected with either strain, it is presumed that the humoral response would play an additional role in the development of strain-dependent neuromuscular pathology since passive transfer of sera from mice infected with RA triggered alterations of the nerve action potential whereas sera from CA-I-infected mice did not. We have also detected a reduction in the fertility of female mice infected with CA-I/K98, whereas females infected with RA showed no difference in comparison with uninfected controls. However, congenital transmission was only observed in mice infected with RA. The differences observed in fertility, in newborn survival, and in the number of fetal resorptions in mice infected with the myotropic strain could be attributed to the uterine inflammatory response, since no estrous alterations were observed between infected and control groups.

Use of trans-Sialidase inhibition assay in a population serologically negative for Trypanosoma cruzi but at a high risk of infection.

trans-Sialidase inhibition assay (TIA) was employed in a population at high risk of Trypanosoma cruzi infection. From 20 serum samples that were negative by conventional serologic and parasitologic assays, 18 (90%) were reactive in TIA, providing further evidence of the higher sensitivity of TIA and suggesting that the actual prevalence of T. cruzi infection might be underestimated.

Chagas' disease: reactivity against homologous tissues induced by different strains of Trypanosoma cruzi.

We have previously reported that the mechanisms of neuromyopathic damage induced by Trypanosoma cruzi are mediated by T cells and are parasite-strain dependent. In the present study our aim was to determine whether the humoral response against muscle and nervous system is also parasite-strain dependent. Of the sera from mice infected with RA and CA-I. T. cruzi strains, 93% reacted against antigens of the nervous system (sciatic nerve, spinal cord and brain). No differences in the ability to recognize heart antigens were found between RA (48%) and CA-I (63%) antisera. Reactivity against skeletal muscle was only relevant in anti-CA-I sera at 270 days post-infection. Each of the antisera assayed in Western blots developed a particular antigenic pattern, but 3 antigens in the nervous system of molecular weight 48, 60 and 70 kDa were detected by 42, 28 and 23% of the sera, respectively. On the other hand, deposits of IgG were observed at the interstitial matrix in sciatic nerve and as endomisial and sarcolemmal patterns in skeletal muscle by IFAT for both RA and CA-I antisera. Absorption of sera with parasite antigens did not abolish the autoreactivity. Our results suggest that major serum autoreactivity from T. cruzi-infected mice is not parasite-strain dependent and does not arise from molecular mimicry.

Long-lasting antibodies detected by a trans-sialidase inhibition assay of sera from parasite-free, serologically cured chagasic patients.

A test based on the inhibition by antibodies of the trans-sialidase was used to analyze infection by Trypanosoma cruzi, the agent of Chagas' disease. Sera collected during the longitudinal follow-up of benznidazole-treated acutely and congenitally infected patients became negative for T. cruzi as determined by tests presently used to assess cure; however, the sera remained positive for T. cruzi by the trans-sialidase inhibition assay (TIA) up to 14 years after treatment. Therefore, TIA is a highly sensitive marker for previous T. cruzi infection.

Different Trypanosoma cruzi strains promote neuromyopathic damage mediated by distinct T lymphocyte subsets.

The proliferative response of CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes obtained from C3H/HeN mice chronically infected with Trypanosoma cruzi strains that differ in virulence, tropism and immunogenicity, was assayed against skeletal muscle, sciatic nerve and spinal cord homogenates. Although both CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes from mice infected with the RA strain strongly proliferated against the nervous system, no response against skeletal muscle antigens was detected. CD4 and CD8 T lymphocytes from mice infected with the K-98 clone (from CA-I strain) showed low proliferative response against all the antigens assayed. To determine whether the proliferation patterns showed correlation with T cell-mediated neuromuscular damage, passive cell transfer studies were performed. Fifteen days after transfer of CD4 T cells from RA-infected donors (CD4-RA), normal syngeneic recipients displayed exclusively nervous tissue damage, such as perineural, endoneural and/or meningeal inflammatory infiltrates, with predominance of CD4 T cells. Fifteen days after transfer of CD4 T lymphocytes from mice infected with K-98 (CD4-K98), recipients showed inflammatory infiltrates only in skeletal muscle, where CD4 T lymphocytes and macrophages were predominant cells. Recipients of CD8 T cells from RA-infected mice (CD8-RA) showed lesions in both spinal cord and sciatic nerves. Higher percentages of CD8 T cells were observed in comparison with the recipients of CD4-RA or CD4-K98. In contrast, CD8 T cells from K-98-infected donors (CD8-K98) did not induce tissue damage. These results provide evidence that mice infected with T. cruzi populations that differ in their biological characteristics show diverse immune mechanisms that may be involved in the pathogenesis of peripheral nervous system damage.

Genomic characterization of hepatitis C virus isolates from Argentina.

Thirty-three Argentinian patients infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV) were studied for viral genotyping. The patients included 10 hemophiliac and 4 polytransfused children and 19 adults: 3 polytransfused, 7 dialyzed and 9 sporadic cases. Core-based genotyping permitted the classification of 31 samples. Genotypes II, I and V were the most frequent: 21 (63.6%), 16 (48.4%) and 10 (30.3%) of the 33 patients, respectively. Only one polytransfused patient carried genotype IV. Genotype II was detected in 7 out of 9 sporadic cases. Thirteen patients (39.3%) were coinfected with two genotypes, and 2 others were coinfected with three genotypes. The remaining 2 samples which could not be typed were characterized following the restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method, and were classified as type 1. One of these had two consecutive transitional mutations in the 5' untranslated region (5' UTR).

Peripheral nervous system involvement in human and experimental chronic American trypanosomiasis.

An electrophysiological and histological study of the muscle and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) was carried out in chronic human American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease) and in an experimental Chagas' disease (Chd) mouse model. Altogether 995 patients with chronic Chd and 261 mice, experimentally infected with RA and CA-I parasite strains, were investigated. Results were compared with matched controls. Techniques employed in humans were: clinical assessment, conventional electromyography (EMG), estimated number of motor units, motor and sensory nerve conduction velocities, repetitive nerve stimulation and muscle and sural nerve biopsies. In mice conventional EMG, sciatic nerve conduction time, sciatic nerve action potential amplitude, in vitro miniature end-plate potentials (MEPPs) and end-plate potentials (EPPs) recordings, muscle, nerve and spinal cord histology and identification of cell phenotypes within the inflammatory infiltrates were the employed procedures. Out of 511 patients submitted to clinical examination, 52 disclosed signs and symptoms of mixed peripheral neuropathy. By employing electrophysiological techniques, it could be shown that about 30% of the investigated patients had one or more of the following features: diminished interference pattern, most of the remainder motor unit potentials being (MUPs) polyphasic; reduced number of functional motor units in the thenar, hypothenar, soleus and/or edb muscles; slow sensory and motor nerve conduction velocities; low sensory action potential amplitude and impairement of neuromuscular transmission. In mice, MUPs duration and amplitude were increased at later stages of the infection, nerve conduction was slow, nerve action potentials were of low amplitude, mepps were of low amplitude and double epps were frequently found. Muscle histology in humans with chronic Chd showed type I and type II grouping, atrophic angular fibers and targetoid muscle fibers. In mice perivascular mononuclear cells infiltrates, small round fibers, muscle fibers necrosis, atrophic angular fibers, type II muscle fibers grouping and grouped muscle fibers atrophy were found. Sural nerve samples showed segmental and paranodal demyelination and axonal loss. The same features were observed in mice nerves, also in this model mononuclear cells infiltrates at the nerve, dorsal root ganglia and meninges surrounding the spinal cord were observed. Muscle and nervous tissues infiltrates were mainly composed of T lymphocytes with predominance of CD8 or CD4 subsets according to the parasites strain employed for infecting the animals. These findings suggest that the skeletal muscle and the PNS may be involved in chronic American trypanosomiasis.

PGE2 involvement in experimental infection with Trypanosoma cruzi subpopulations.

PGE2 involvement in experimental Trypanosoma cruzi infection depends on the lethal capacity of the parasite subpopulation used. Mice acutely infected with non-lethal K98 displayed an enhancement in PGE2 serum levels during the acute period, while those infected with lethal T. cruzi subpopulations (RA or K98-2) showed levels not different from normal mice. The enhancement detected in K98 group could be related both to an increased number of CD8+ T cell number and to enhanced PGE2 release per cell by CD8+; values of PGE2 release by adherent cells were not altered in this group. Treatment with cyclooxygenase inhibitors enhanced mortality rates of mice infected with K98, and administration of 16,16-dimethyl PGE2 (dPGE) reversed this effect. However, mice infected with RA did not reduce their mortality rates by administration of diverse doses of dPGE. These findings suggest that PGE2 could play a role in resistance in mice infected with K98.

Experimental Chagas' disease: electrophysiology and cell composition of the neuromyopathic inflammatory lesions in mice infected with a myotropic and a pantropic strain of Trypanosoma cruzi.

C3H/HeN mice infected with the pantropic/reticulotropic Trypanosoma cruzi RA strain disclosed electromyographic signs (EMG) of neuropathic damage, while those infected with the myotropic CA-I strain showed EMG suggestive of primary muscle involvement. Although both strains induced inflammatory infiltrates in hamstring muscles (HM), damage was more severe in mice infected with CA-I. In sciatic nerves (SN) of mice infected with the RA strain, increased inflammatory changes, amastigote nests, and myelin digestion chambers were consistently found during the course of infection. On the other hand, the CA-I strain produced minor inflammatory changes without detectable amastigotes in such tissue. The RA strain induced chronic leptomeningitis in spinal cord (SC), while infiltrates were limited to spinal roots and dorsal ganglia in animals infected with CA-I. In mice infected with RA, phenotypic analysis of inflammatory lesions showed a consistent predominance of CD8+ T cells in nervous tissue throughout the course of infection and in HM during the chronic phase whereas natural killer cells were detected at 120 and 270 days pi. In mice infected with CA-I, a predominance of CD8+ cells in SN was only detected during the acute phase and in HM during the late chronic phase; B lymphocytes bearing surface IgM were present in all studied tissues at 270 days pi. In addition, positive fluorescence for mouse IgG was observed at 120 days pi in muscle interstitium. These results strongly suggest that T. cruzi strain-dependent mechanisms are involved in the development of neuromyopathic damage.