ABSTRACT
Rapid eye movement sleep decreases between 10 and 30 days postnatally in the rat. The pedunculopontine nucleus is known to modulate waking and rapid eye movement sleep, and pedunculopontine nucleus neurons are thought to be hyperpolarized by noradrenergic input from the locus coeruleus. The goal of the study was to investigate the possibility that a change in alpha-2 adrenergic inhibition of pedunculopontine nucleus cells during this period could explain at least part of the developmental decrease in rapid eye movement sleep. We, therefore, recorded intracellularly in 12-21 day rat brainstem slices maintained in oxygenated artificial cerebrospinal fluid. Putative cholinergic vs. non-cholinergic pedunculopontine nucleus neurons were identified using nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase histochemistry and intracellular injection of neurobiotin (Texas Red immunocytochemistry). Pedunculopontine nucleus neurons also were identified by intrinsic membrane properties, type I (low threshold spike), type II (A) and type III (A+low threshold spike), as previously described. Clonidine (20 microM) hyperpolarized most cholinergic and non-cholinergic pedunculopontine nucleus cells. This hyperpolarization decreased significantly in amplitude (mean+/-S.E.) from -6.8+/-1.0 mV at 12-13 days, to -3.0+/-0.7 mV at 20-21 days. However, much of these early effects (12-15 days) were indirect such that direct effects (tested following sodium channel blockade with tetrodotoxin (0.3 microM)) resulted in hyperpolarization averaging -3.4+/-0.5 mV, similar to that evident at 16-21 days. Non-cholinergic cells were less hyperpolarized than cholinergic cells at 12-13 days (-1.6+/-0.3 mV), but equally hyperpolarized at 20-21 days (-3.3+/-1.3 mV). In those cells tested, hyperpolarization was blocked by yohimbine, an alpha-2 adrenergic receptor antagonist (1.5 microM). These results suggest that the alpha-2 adrenergic receptor on cholinergic pedunculopontine nucleus neurons activated by clonidine may play only a modest role, if any, in the developmental decrease in rapid eye movement sleep. Clonidine blocked or reduced the hyperpolarization-activated inward cation conductance, so that its effects on the firing rate of a specific population of pedunculopontine nucleus neurons could be significant. In conclusion, the alpha-2 adrenergic input to pedunculopontine nucleus neurons appears to consistently modulate the firing rate of cholinergic and non-cholinergic pedunculopontine nucleus neurons, with important effects on the regulation of sleep-wake states.
Subject(s)
Adrenergic alpha-Agonists/pharmacology , Clonidine/pharmacology , Neurons/drug effects , Pedunculopontine Tegmental Nucleus/cytology , Acetylcholine/pharmacology , Action Potentials/drug effects , Action Potentials/physiology , Action Potentials/radiation effects , Adrenergic alpha-Antagonists/pharmacology , Analysis of Variance , Anesthetics, Local/pharmacology , Animals , Animals, Newborn , Biotin/analogs & derivatives , Biotin/metabolism , Electric Stimulation/methods , Female , In Vitro Techniques , Male , NADP/metabolism , Neurons/classification , Neurons/physiology , Neurons/radiation effects , Pedunculopontine Tegmental Nucleus/growth & development , Pregnancy , Pyrimidines/pharmacology , Rats , Rats, Sprague-Dawley , Tetrodotoxin/pharmacology , Yohimbine/pharmacologyABSTRACT
Prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke is known to produce lasting arousal, attentional and cognitive deficits in humans. The pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN), as the cholinergic arm of the reticular activating system (RAS), is known to modulate arousal, waking and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. REM sleep decreases between 10 and 30 days postnatally in the rat, especially at 12-21 days. Pregnant dams were exposed to 350 ml of cigarette smoke for 15 min, 3 times per day, from day E14 until birth, and the pups allowed to mature. Intracellularly recorded PPN neurons in 12-21 day rat brainstem slices were tested for intrinsic membrane properties, including the hyperpolarization-activated cation current Ih, which is known to drive oscillatory activity. Type II (A-current) PPN cells from 12-16 day old offspring of treated animals had a 1/2max Ih amplitude of (mean +/- SE) 4.1 +/- 0.9 mV, while 17-21 day cells had a higher 1/2max Ih of 9.9 +/- 1.1 mV (p < 0.0001). Cells from 12-16 day old control brainstems had a 1/2max Ih of 1.3 +/- 0.1 mV, which was lower (p < 0.05) than in cells from prenatally treated offspring; while 17-21 day old cells from controls had a 1/2max Ih of 3.3 +/- 0.3 mV, which was also lower (p < 0.01) than in cells from prenatally treated offspring. In addition, changes in resting membrane potential [control -65. +/- 0.9 mV (n=32); exposed -55.0 +/- 1.4 mV (n = 27) (p < 0.0001)], and action potential (AP) threshold [control -56.5 +/- 0.7 mV (n = 32), exposed -47.0 +/- 1.4 mV (n = 27) (p < 0.0001)], suggest that prenatal exposure to cigarette smoke induced marked changes in cells in the cholinergic arm of the RAS, rendering them more excitable. Such data could partially explain the differences seen in individuals whose parents smoked during pregnancy, especially in terms of their hypervigilance and increased propensity for attentional deficits and cognitive/behavioral disorders.
