Adecuación al flujograma PROA de neumonía aguda comunitaria en la emergencia del Hospital de Clínicas en 2019, Uruguay / Adaptation to the PROA flowchart for community acute pneumonia in the Hospital de Clínicas emergency in 2019, Uruguay / Adaptação ao fluxograma PROA para pneumonia aguda comunitária na emergência do Hospital de Clínicas em 2019, Uruguai

Resumen: Introducción: La resistencia antimicrobiana es uno de los principales problemas de salud pública mundial. Representa una causa importante de morbilidad en la población general y un elevado costo para los sistemas sanitarios. La Neumonía Aguda Comunitaria (NAC) representa una de las principales infecciones bacterianas en nuestro medio. Objetivo general: Evaluar la adecuación al flujograma del Programa de Optimización de Antimicrobianos (PROA) para el manejo de NAC en Departamento de Emergencia del Hospital de Clínicas (HC) entre julio y agosto de 2019. Materiales y métodos: Se realizó un estudio observacional, transversal, en el período de julio-agosto de 2019, en Departamento de Emergencia del Hospital de Clínicas. Se incluyeron pacientes mayores de 18 años, que firmaron el consentimiento informado, diagnosticados con NAC, cumpliendo criterios clínicos e imagenológicos establecidos en el flujograma del PROA del Hospital de Clínicas. Se elaboró una base de datos diseñada a partir del flujograma. Resultados: Se incluyeron 51 pacientes para el análisis. La edad promedio fue 54 años, 28 eran mujeres. Las comorbilidades más prevalentes fueron: tabaquismo, consumo de pasta base de cocaína y alcoholismo, presentes en 51% de la muestra. Treinta y cinco pacientes presentaron criterios de severidad, predominando insuficiencia respiratoria en 71%. Un 43 % presentaron factores de riesgo para microorganismos multirresistentes. Se observó una adecuación al PROA de 41%. Discusión: La adecuación al tratamiento recomendado fue inferior a la descrita en otros trabajos. El principal problema fue una errónea clasificación en los grupos de riesgo propuestos en el flujograma, ocasionando la hospitalización de pacientes que debieron recibir tratamiento ambulatorio, recibiendo antibioticoterapia de mayor espectro. Conclusiones: La existencia de PROA hospitalarios permite realizar monitoreo de prácticas diagnósticas y prescripción de antimicrobianos. Se observó una inadecuada aplicación del flujograma, lo que determinó el uso de antibióticos de mayor espectro con riesgo potencial del desarrollo de resistencia.

Abstract: Introduction: Antimicrobial resistance is one of the main world public health problems. It represents an important cause of morbidity in general population and a high cost for health systems. Community Acquired Pneumonia (CAP) represents one of the main bacterial infections in our midst. Objective: To evaluate the adequacy of the Antimicrobial Stewardship (AMS) in the management of CAP in the Emergency Department of Hospital de Clínicas (HC) between July and August 2019. Materials and methods: An observational, cross-sectional study was conducted from July-August 2019, in the Emergency Department of Hospital de Clínicas. Patients older than 18 years old were included, who signed the informed consent, diagnosed with CAP, fulfilling clinical and imaging criteria established in the flowchart. A database designed from the AMS flow chart of the Hospital de Clínicas was developed. Results: 51 patients were included for the analysis. The average age was 54 years, 28 were women. The most prevalent comorbidities were smoking, consumption of cocaine paste or alcoholism, present in 51% of the sample. Thirty-five patients presented severity criteria, prevailing respiratory failure in 71%. Risk factors for multiresistant microorganisms was 43%. PROA adequacy of 41.2% was observed. Discussion: The adequacy to the recommended treatment was lower than that described in other papers. The main problem was an erroneous classification in the risk groups proposed in the flowchart, causing hospitalization of patients who had to receive treatment at home, receiving broader spectrum antibiotic therapy. Conclusions: The existence of hospital stewardships allows monitoring of diagnostic practices and antimicrobial prescription. Inadequate application of the flow chart was observed, which determined the use of broader spectrum antibiotics with potential risk of developing resistance.

Resumo: Introdução: A resistência antimicrobiana é um dos principais problemas de saúde pública global. Representa uma das principais causas de morbidade na população em geral e um alto custo para os sistemas de saúde. A Pneumonia Aguda Comunitária (PAC) representa uma das principais infecções bacterianas em nosso meio. Objetivo: Avaliar a adequação do fluxograma do Programa de Otimização de Antimicrobianos (PROA) para o gerenciamento do PAC no Pronto Atendimento do Hospital de Clínicas (HC) entre julho e agosto de 2019. Materiais e métodos: Foi realizado um estudo observacional, transversal, no período de julho a agosto de 2019, no Pronto-Socorro do Hospital de Clínicas. Foram incluídos pacientes maiores de 18 anos, que assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido, com diagnóstico de PAC, que preenchessem os critérios clínicos e de imagem estabelecidos no fluxograma do PROA do Hospital de Clínicas. Um banco de dados projetado a partir do fluxograma foi desenvolvido. Resultados: 51 pacientes foram incluídos para análise. A idade média era de 54 anos, 28 eram mulheres. As comorbidades mais prevalentes foram: tabagismo, consumo de pasta base de cocaína e etilismo, presentes em 51% da amostra. Trinta e cinco pacientes apresentaram critérios de gravidade, predominando insuficiência respiratória em 71%. 43% apresentaram fatores de risco para microrganismos multirresistentes. Observou-se adequação ao PROA de 41%. Discussão: A adequação ao tratamento recomendado foi inferior ao descrito em outros estudos. O principal problema era uma classificação errônea nos grupos de risco propostos no fluxograma, ocasionando a internação de pacientes que precisavam receber tratamento ambulatorial, recebendo antibioticoterapia de maior espectro. Conclusões: A existência de PROAs hospitalares permite o monitoramento das práticas diagnósticas e prescrição de antimicrobianos. Observou-se uma aplicação inadequada do fluxograma, que determinou o uso de antibióticos de maior espectro e com potencial risco de desenvolvimento de resistência.

Cardiac output measured by transthoracic echocardiography and Swan-Ganz catheter. A comparative study in mechanically ventilated patients with high positive end-expiratory pressure. / Monitorizacion del gasto cardiaco con ecocardiografia transtoracica y cateter de Swan Ganz. Estudio comparativo en pacientes en ventilacion mecanica con presión positiva espiratoria final elevada.

OBJECTIVE: To compare cardiac output measurements by transthoracic echocardiography and a pulmonary artery catheter in mechanically ventilated patients with high positive end-expiratory pressure. To evaluate the effect of tricuspid regurgitation. METHODS: Sixteen mechanically ventilated patients were studied. Cardiac output was measured by pulmonary artery catheterization and transthoracic echocardiography. Measurements were performed at different levels of positive end-expiratory pressure (10cmH2O, 15cmH2O, and 20cmH2O). The effect of tricuspid regurgitation on cardiac output measurement was evaluated. The intraclass correlation coefficient was studied; the mean error and limits of agreement were studied with the Bland-Altman plot. The error rate was calculated. RESULTS: Forty-four pairs of cardiac output measurements were obtained. An intraclass correlation coefficient of 0.908 was found (p < 0.001). The mean error was 0.44L/min for cardiac output values between 5 and 13L/min. The limits of agreement were 3.25L/min and -2.37L/min. With tricuspid insufficiency, the intraclass correlation coefficient was 0.791, and without tricuspid insufficiency, 0.935. Tricuspid insufficiency increased the error rate from 32% to 52%. CONCLUSIONS: In patients with high positive end-expiratory pressure, cardiac output measurement by transthoracic echocardiography is comparable to that with a pulmonary artery catheter. Tricuspid regurgitation influences the intraclass correlation coefficient. In patients with high positive end-expiratory pressure, the use of transthoracic echocardiography to measure cardiac output is comparable to invasive measures.

OBJETIVO: Comparar las medidas de gasto cardiaco por ecocardiografía transtorácica y por catéter arterial pulmonar en pacientes en ventilación mecánica con presión positiva al final de la espiración elevada. Evaluar el efecto de la insuficiencia tricúspide. MÉTODOS: Se estudiaron 16 pacientes en ventilación mecánica. El gasto cardiaco se midió con el catéter arterial pulmonar y por ecocardiografía transtorácica. Las medidas se realizaron en diferentes niveles de presión positiva al final de la espiración (10cmH2O, 15cmH2O, y 20cmH2O). Se evalúo el efecto de la insuficiencia tricúspide sobre la medida de gasto cardiaco. Se estudió el coeficiente de correlación intraclase; el error medio y los límites de concordancia se estudiaron con el diagrama de Bland-Altman. Se calculó el porcentaje de error. RESULTADOS: Se obtuvieron 44 pares de medidas de gasto cardiaco. Se obtuvo un coeficiente de correlación intraclase de 0,908, p < 0,001; el error medio fue 0,44L/min para valores de gasto cardíaco entre 5 a 13L/min. Los límites de concordancia se encontraron entre 3,25L/min y -2,37L/min. Con insuficiencia tricúspide el coeficiente de correlación intraclase fue 0,791, sin insuficiencia tricúspide el coeficiente de correlación intraclase fue 0,935. La presencia de insuficiencia tricúspide aumentó el porcentaje de error de 32 % a 52%. CONCLUSIONES: En pacientes con presión positiva al final de la espiración elevada la medida de gasto cardiaco por ecocardiografía transtorácica es comparable con catéter arterial pulmonar. La presencia de insuficiencia tricúspide influye en el coeficiente de correlación intraclase. En pacientes con presión positiva al final de la espiración elevada, el uso de ecocardiografía transtorácica para medir gasto cardiaco es comparable con las medidas invasivas.

Nivel de concordancia entre personal entrenado y no entrenado en triaje y un sistema informático automatizado / Level of agreement between trained and non-trained personnel in triage with a computerized system / Nível de concordância entre pessoal treinado e não treinado em triagem, e um sistema informático automatizado

El triaje -proceso de clasificación de pacientes según prioridades asistenciales- es una herramienta reconocida para la gestión asistencial y administrativa de los departamentos de emergencia. En el Hospital de Clínicas, luego de ocho años de funcionamiento, se cuenta con un proceso de triaje automatizado y normalizado que se transformó en la base organizativa para el abordaje calificado de las consultas. El objetivo del trabajo fue comparar la concordancia del triaje efectuado por personal de salud entrenado y no entrenado previamente sin apoyo informático versus el sistema informatizado, comparándolo con los resultados del mismo en tiempo real. Se observó que existe un mayor nivel de concordancia del personal entrenado con los resultados del sistema informatizado si lo comparamos con el personal no entrenado. El observador capacitado con más resultados concordantes obtuvo 55,9% de acuerdos con el sistema informatizado de triaje (19 concordantes de 34), y el que obtuvo menos resultados concordantes tuvo 32,4% de similitud (11 concordantes de 34). En el grupo de no expertos el promedio global de concordancia fue de 41,5%. El observador experto tuvo 79,4% (27/34) de resultados iguales y un índice Kappa respecto al sistema informatizado de triaje. El observador experto tuvo un índice Kappa de 0,695, mientras que los observadores capacitados tuvieron un índice Kappa de 0,19 y 0,23 cuando se compararon con el sistema informático y el observador experimentado, respectivamente. Se concluye que un período breve de entrenamiento en triaje no aumenta la concordancia cuando se comparan con los resultados del triaje usando un sistema informático y con el triaje realizado por un observador experimentado. Estos resultados deberían ser validados en series mayores de pacientes. (AU)

"Triage" -the process of quickly examining patients according to their priority of treatment - is a tool that has been recognized for institutional and administrative management in the Emergency Departments. Eight years after its introduction, the Clinicas Hospital has an automatized and normalized process which has become the organizational bases to address consultations in a qualified manner. The study aimed to compare triage done by health professionals who had been trained and the one done by health professionals with no prior training of IT support, to the computerized system, comparing it with results in real time. A higher level of agreement between trained health professionals with the results in the computerized system, when compared to professionals who lacked training was observed. The trained observer with the most matching results achieved 55.9% of agreements with the computerized triage system (19 out of 34), and the observer with the least matching results obtained 32.4% of similarities (11 out of 34). Global agreement level was 41.5% in the group of professionals who were not experts. Experienced observers accounted for 79.4% (27/34) of equal results and kappa index of 0.695, whereas trained observers had 0.19 and 0.23 Kappa indexes when compared to the computerized system and the experiences observer, respectively. Therefore, we find that a short training in triage does not increase agreement when compared to the computerized system and it does increase when we compare it to triage by an experienced observer. These results should be validated in larger series of patients. (AU)

A "triagem" -processo de classificação de pacientes por prioridades assistenciais- é uma ferramenta reconhecida para a gestão assistencial e administrativa dos Departamentos de Emergência. No Hospital de Clínicas, depois de oito anos de funcionamento, está disponível um processo de triagem automatizado e normalizado que funciona como base da organização para a abordagem qualificada das consultas. O objetivo deste trabalho foi comparar a concordância da triagem realizada por pessoal de saúde treinado e não treinado previamente sem apoio informático, versus sistema informatizado, comparando os resultados em tempo real. Observou-se um maior nível de concordância do pessoal treinado com os resultados do sistema informatizado, se comparamos com o pessoal não treinado. O observador capacitado com mais resultados concordantes teve 55,9% de concordâncias com o sistema informatizado de triagem (19 concordantes de 34), e o que obteve menos resultados concordantes 32,4% de similitude (11 concordantes de 34). No grupo de no expertos a média global de concordância foi 41,5%. O observador experto teve 79,4% (27/34) de resultados iguais e um índice kappa respeito al sistema informatizado de triagem. O observador experto teve um índice de Kappa de 0,695, enquanto os observadores capacitados tiveram um índice kappa de 0.19 y 0.23 quando foram comparados com o sistema informático e o observador experimentado, respectivamente. Conclui-se que um período breve de treinamento em triagem não aumenta a concordância quando se compara com si e com um observador experimentado. Estes resultados deveriam ser validados em series maiores de pacientes. (AU)

Perioperative Fluid Accumulation Impairs Intestinal Contractility to a Similar Extent as Peritonitis and Endotoxemia.

BACKGROUND: Perioperative resuscitation with large amounts of fluid may cause tissue edema, especially in the gut, and thereby impairing its functions. This is especially relevant in sepsis where capillaries become leaky and fluid rapidly escapes to the pericapillary tissue. We assessed the effects of endotoxemia and peritonitis, and the use of high and moderate volume fluid resuscitation on jejunal contractility. We hypothesized that both endotoxemia and peritonitis impair jejunum contractility and relaxation, and that this effect is aggravated in peritonitis and with high fluid administration. METHODS: Pigs were randomized to endotoxin (n = 16), peritonitis (n = 16), or sham operation (n = 16), and either high (20 mL/kg/h) or moderate volume (10 mL/kg/h) fluid resuscitation for 24 h or until death. At the end of the experiment, jejunal contractility and relaxation were measured in vitro using acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside reactivity, and the effect of nitric oxide synthase inhibition (NOS-I) was assessed. RESULTS: Mortality in the respective groups was 88% (peritonitis high), 75% (endotoxemia high), 50% (peritonitis moderate), 13% (endotoxemia moderate and sham operation high), and 0% (sham operation moderate volume resuscitation). Although gut perfusion was preserved in all groups, jejunal contractility was impaired in the two peritonitis and two endotoxemia groups, and similarly also in the sham operation group treated with high but not with moderate volume fluid resuscitation (model-fluid-contraction-interaction, P = 0.036; maximal contractility 136 ±â€Š28% [average of both peritonitis, both endotoxemia and sham operation high-volume groups) vs. 170 ±â€Š74% of baseline [sham operation moderate-volume group]). NOS-I reduced contractility (contraction-inhibition-interaction, P = 0.011) without significant differences between groups and relaxation was affected neither by peritonitis and endotoxemia nor by the fluid regimen. CONCLUSIONS: Intestinal contractility is similarly impaired during peritonitis and during endotoxemia. Moreover, perioperative high-volume fluid resuscitation in sham-operated animals also decreases intestinal contractility. This may have consequences for postoperative recovery.

Complicaciones y mortalidad de la cirugía de resección pulmonar en unidades de medicina intensiva / Complications and mortality of pulmonary resection in intensive care units

Objetivo: describir la frecuencia de complicaciones y mortalidad posoperatorias en una serie de pacientes sometidos a cirugía de resección pulmonar programada que ingresaron a unidades de cuidado intensivo (UCI) en el posoperatorio inmediato. Material y método: estudio observacional, retrospectivo, multicéntrico, realizado entre los años 2009 y 2010 en cuatro centros de Montevideo. Se incluyeron 148 pacientes, se analizaron variables demográficas, antecedentes personales, indicación y procedimiento quirúrgico, complicaciones, estancia en UCI y mortalidad. Se realizó un análisis estadístico descriptivo, bivariado y multivariado, se tomó significativo un intervalo de confianza de 95% y un valor de p < 0,05. Resultados: la mortalidad cruda posoperatoria durante la estancia en la UCI fue de 10,1%. La incidencia de complicaciones posoperatorias fue de 53,3%, siendo la mediana de la estancia en la unidad de tres días con un rango intercuartílico de 3. Las principales complicaciones fueron pulmonares, pleurales y cardiovasculares. La mortalidad fue mayor en resecciones pulmonares extensas, pacientes con enfermedad pulmonar obstructiva crónica y en los que presentaron complicaciones respiratorias y cardiovasculares. La principal causa de muerte fue la sepsis grave. El desarrollo de sepsis grave (OR 12,9 IC95%, 5,95-21,24 p <0,001) y la necesidad de asistencia respiratoria mecánica (ARM) (OR 3,7 IC95%, 1,80-8,93 p = 0,001) fueron factores de riesgo independiente asociados a mortalidad. Conclusiones: la morbimortalidad posoperatoria durante la estancia en UCI es elevada. Las principales complicaciones son respiratorias y cardiovasculares. El desarrollo de sepsis grave y la necesidad de ARM fueron factores independientes asociados a mayor mortalidad...

Different contribution of splanchnic organs to hyperlactatemia in fecal peritonitis and cardiac tamponade.

BACKGROUND: Changes in hepatosplanchnic lactate exchange are likely to contribute to hyperlactatemia in sepsis. We hypothesized that septic and cardiogenic shock have different effects on hepatosplanchnic lactate exchange and its contribution to hyperlactatemia. MATERIALS AND METHODS: 24 anesthetized pigs were randomized to fecal peritonitis (P), cardiac tamponade (CT), and to controls (n = 8 per group). Oxygen transport and lactate exchange were calculated during 24 hours. RESULTS: While hepatic lactate influx increased in P and in CT, hepatic lactate uptake remained unchanged in P and decreased in CT. Hepatic lactate efflux contributed 20% (P) and 33% (CT), respectively, to whole body venous efflux. Despite maintained hepatic arterial blood flow, hepatic oxygen extraction did not increase in CT. CONCLUSIONS: Whole body venous lactate efflux is of similar magnitude in hyperdynamic sepsis and in cardiogenic shock. Although jejunal mucosal pCO2 gradients are increased, enhanced lactate production from other tissues is more relevant to the increased arterial lactate. Nevertheless, the liver fails to increase hepatic lactate extraction in response to rising hepatic lactate influx, despite maintained hepatic oxygen consumption. In cardiac tamponade, regional, extrasplanchnic lactate production is accompanied by hepatic failure to increase oxygen extraction and net hepatic lactate output, despite maintained hepatic arterial perfusion.

Effects of lung recruitment maneuvers on splanchnic organ perfusion during endotoxin-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension.

Lung recruitment maneuvers (RMs), used to reopen atelectatic lung units and to improve oxygenation during mechanical ventilation, may result in hemodynamic impairment. We hypothesize that pulmonary arterial hypertension aggravates the consequences of RMs in the splanchnic circulation. Twelve anesthetized pigs underwent laparotomy and prolonged postoperative ventilation. Systemic, regional, and organ blood flows were monitored. After 6 h (= baseline), a recruitment maneuver was performed with sustained inflation of the lungs. Thereafter, the pigs were randomly assigned to group C (control, n = 6) or group E with endotoxin-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension (n = 6). Endotoxemia resulted in a normotensive and hyperdynamic state and a deterioration of the oxygenation index by 33%. The RM was then repeated in both groups. Pulmonary artery pressure increased during lipopolysaccharide infusion from 17 ± 2 mmHg (mean ± SD) to 31 ± 10 mmHg and remained unchanged in controls (P < 0.05). During endotoxemia, RM decreased aortic pulse pressure from 37 ± 14 mmHg to 27 ± 13 mmHg (mean ± SD, P = 0.024). The blood flows of the renal artery, hepatic artery, celiac trunk, superior mesenteric artery, and portal vein decreased to 71% ± 21%, 69% ± 20%, 76% ± 16%, 79% ± 18%, and 81% ± 12%, respectively, of baseline flows before RM (P < 0.05 all). Organ perfusion of kidney cortex, kidney medulla, liver, and jejunal mucosa in group E decreased to 65% ± 19%, 77% ± 13%, 66% ± 26%, and 71% ± 12%, respectively, of baseline flows (P < 0.05 all). The corresponding recovery to at least 90% of baseline regional blood flow and organ perfusion lasted 1 to 5 min. Importantly, the decreases in regional blood flows and organ perfusion and the time to recovery of these flows did not differ from the controls. In conclusion, lipopolysaccharide-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension does not aggravate the RM-induced significant but short-lasting decreases in systemic, regional, and organ blood flows.

Effect of fluid resuscitation on mortality and organ function in experimental sepsis models.

INTRODUCTION: Several recent studies have shown that a positive fluid balance in critical illness is associated with worse outcome. We tested the effects of moderate vs. high-volume resuscitation strategies on mortality, systemic and regional blood flows, mitochondrial respiration, and organ function in two experimental sepsis models. METHODS: 48 pigs were randomized to continuous endotoxin infusion, fecal peritonitis, and a control group (n = 16 each), and each group further to two different basal rates of volume supply for 24 hours [moderate-volume (10 ml/kg/h, Ringer's lactate, n = 8); high-volume (15 + 5 ml/kg/h, Ringer's lactate and hydroxyethyl starch (HES), n = 8)], both supplemented by additional volume boli, as guided by urinary output, filling pressures, and responses in stroke volume. Systemic and regional hemodynamics were measured and tissue specimens taken for mitochondrial function assessment and histological analysis. RESULTS: Mortality in high-volume groups was 87% (peritonitis), 75% (endotoxemia), and 13% (controls). In moderate-volume groups mortality was 50% (peritonitis), 13% (endotoxemia) and 0% (controls). Both septic groups became hyperdynamic. While neither sepsis nor volume resuscitation strategy was associated with altered hepatic or muscle mitochondrial complex I- and II-dependent respiration, non-survivors had lower hepatic complex II-dependent respiratory control ratios (2.6 +/- 0.7, vs. 3.3 +/- 0.9 in survivors; P = 0.01). Histology revealed moderate damage in all organs, colloid plaques in lung tissue of high-volume groups, and severe kidney damage in endotoxin high-volume animals. CONCLUSIONS: High-volume resuscitation including HES in experimental peritonitis and endotoxemia increased mortality despite better initial hemodynamic stability. This suggests that the strategy of early fluid management influences outcome in sepsis. The high mortality was not associated with reduced mitochondrial complex I- or II-dependent muscle and hepatic respiration.

Norepinephrine to increase blood pressure in endotoxaemic pigs is associated with improved hepatic mitochondrial respiration.

INTRODUCTION: Low blood pressure, inadequate tissue oxygen delivery and mitochondrial dysfunction have all been implicated in the development of sepsis-induced organ failure. This study evaluated the effect on liver mitochondrial function of using norepinephrine to increase blood pressure in experimental sepsis. METHODS: Thirteen anaesthetized pigs received endotoxin (Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide B0111:B4; 0.4 microg/kg per hour) and were subsequently randomly assigned to norepinephrine treatment or placebo for 10 hours. Norepinephrine dose was adjusted at 2-hour intervals to achieve 15 mmHg increases in mean arterial blood pressure up to 95 mmHg. Systemic (thermodilution) and hepatosplanchnic (ultrasound Doppler) blood flow were measured at each step. At the end of the experiment, hepatic mitochondrial oxygen consumption (high-resolution respirometry) and citrate synthase activity (spectrophotometry) were assessed. RESULTS: Mean arterial pressure (mmHg) increased only in norepinephrine-treated animals (from 73 [median; range 69 to 81] to 63 [60 to 68] in controls [P = 0.09] and from 83 [69 to 93] to 96 [86 to 108] in norepinephrine-treated animals [P = 0.019]). Cardiac index and systemic oxygen delivery (DO2) increased in both groups, but significantly more in the norepinephrine group (P < 0.03 for both). Cardiac index (ml/min per kg) increased from 99 (range: 72 to 112) to 117 (110 to 232) in controls (P = 0.002), and from 107 (84 to 132) to 161 (147 to 340) in norepinephrine-treated animals (P = 0.001). DO2 (ml/min per kg) increased from 13 (range: 11 to 15) to 16 (15 to 24) in controls (P = 0.028), and from 16 (12 to 19) to 29 (25 to 52) in norepinephrine-treated animals (P = 0.018). Systemic oxygen consumption (systemic VO2) increased in both groups (P < 0.05), whereas hepatosplanchnic flows, DO2 and VO2 remained stable. The hepatic lactate extraction ratio decreased in both groups (P = 0.05). Liver mitochondria complex I-dependent and II-dependent respiratory control ratios were increased in the norepinephrine group (complex I: 3.5 [range: 2.1 to 5.7] in controls versus 5.8 [4.8 to 6.4] in norepinephrine-treated animals [P = 0.015]; complex II: 3.1 [2.3 to 3.8] in controls versus 3.7 [3.3 to 4.6] in norepinephrine-treated animals [P = 0.09]). No differences were observed in citrate synthase activity. CONCLUSION: Norepinephrine treatment during endotoxaemia does not increase hepatosplanchnic flow, oxygen delivery or consumption, and does not improve the hepatic lactate extraction ratio. However, norepinephrine increases the liver mitochondria complex I-dependent and II-dependent respiratory control ratios. This effect was probably mediated by a direct effect of norepinephrine on liver cells.

Direct measurement of intra-abdominal pressure with a solid microtranducer.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a direct intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) measurement technique using a solid microsensor comparing its values with the ones simultaneously obtained by means of Kron's technique. Comparative study between two different methods to measure intra-abdominal pressure in a multidisciplinary intensive care unit of a university hospital. METHODS: In 11 critical patients considered irreversibly ill, IAP was simultaneously measured via Kron's technique (IAPK) and by direct measure (IAPC) through an abdominal tap with a Codman microsensor, inserted through it. Several measurements were obtained at different PEEP levels (0, 10 and 20 cm of H20) and bed inclination (0 degrees , 40 degrees and 60 degrees ). RESULTS: 92 simultaneous measurements of IAPK and IAPC were made. The difference between both measurements (mean +/- SD) were: 0.286 +/- 0.938 mmHg. The correlation coefficient was r = 0.98. Bland-Altman plot showed a narrow distribution: 95% of the differences were between 1.87 mmHg of each averaged value. No complications with IAPC measurements were found. CONCLUSIONS: Direct IAP measurement with a Codman microsensor allows continuous monitoring without urinary tract manipulation, is simple to use and to calibrate, minimally invasive and appropriate for patients at risk to develop abdominal compartmental syndrome. Due to its cost it should be reserved for selected critical patients where standard techniques are contraindicated or can be inaccurate.