Progress in elementary school reading linked to growth of cortical responses to familiar letter combinations within visual word forms.

Learning to read depends on the ability to extract precise details of letter combinations, which convey critical information that distinguishes tens of thousands of visual word forms. To support fluent reading skill, one crucial neural developmental process is one's brain sensitivity to statistical constraints inherent in combining letters into visual word forms. To test this idea in early readers, we tracked the impact of two years of schooling on within-subject longitudinal changes in cortical responses to three different properties of words: coarse tuning for print, and fine tuning to either familiar letter combinations within visual word forms or whole word representations. We then examined how each related to growth in reading skill. Three stimulus contrasts-words versus pseudofonts, words versus pseudowords, pseudowords versus nonwords-were presented while high-density EEG Steady-State Visual Evoked Potentials (SSVEPs, n = 31) were recorded. Internalization of abstract visual word form structures over two years of reading experience resulted in a near doubling of SSVEP amplitude, with increasing left lateralization. Longitudinal changes (decreases) in brain responses to such word form structural information were linked to the growth in reading skills, especially in rapid automatic naming of letters. No such changes were observed for whole word representation processing and coarse tuning for print. Collectively, these findings indicate that sensitivity to visual word form structure develops rapidly through exposure to print and is linked to growth in reading skill. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Longitudinal changes in cognitive responses to coarse print tuning, visual word from structure, and whole word representation were examined in early readers. Visual word form structure processing demonstrated striking patterns of growth with nearly doubled in EEG amplitude and increased left lateralization. Longitudinal changes (decreases) in brain responses to visual word form structural information were linked to the growth in rapid automatic naming for letters. No longitudinal changes were observed for whole word representation processing and coarse tuning for print.

Implicit and explicit spatial-numerical representations diverge in number-form synesthetes.

In number-form (NF) synesthesia-a condition in which people report vivid, automatic and consistent mental layouts for numerical sequences-numbers and space are closely linked. These explicit associations are similar to the implicit associations demonstrated by the Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect. Thus, NF synesthesia offers a unique opportunity to investigate spatial-numerical associations. We tested implicit and explicit representations in NF synesthetes using a multiple case-study design. Over two sessions, synesthetes participated in a semi-structured interview focusing on the nature of their associations, as well as SNARC and number line estimation tasks. Contrary to our hypotheses, only one synesthete demonstrated SNARC effects congruent with her reported form, whereas two others exhibited SNARC effects that were the opposite of their explicit NFs. While this inconsistency between implicit and explicit representations may indicate separate underlying cognitive mechanisms, factors such as task-specific constraints and strategic variability must also be considered.

A colorful advantage in iconic memory.

Synesthesia is a benign neurodevelopmental condition in which stimulation of one sensory modality evokes experiences in a second, unstimulated modality (Simner and Hubbard, 2013). In grapheme-color synesthesia (GCS), which is experienced by 1-2% of adults, synesthetes reliably and involuntarily experience specific colors when viewing blackand-white graphemes. Previous case-studies have identified synesthetes with spectacular memory (Luria, 1968; Smilek, Dixon, Cudahy, & Merikle, 2001) and group studies have found advantages for synesthetes compared to nonsynesthetes in long-term memory (Rothen, Meier, & Ward, 2012). Here, we tested whether similar advantages are also present in earlier stages of memory. We tested visual iconic memory-the sensory store for vision-which has a very large capacity, but decays approximately 1000 ms after stimulus offset (Chow, 1985; Sergent et al., 2013; Sperling, 1960). We tested 20 synesthetes and 20 nonsynesthetes in a direct replication of the Sperling (1960) Partial Report Paradigm using letters (Experiment 1) and non-alphanumeric symbols (Experiment 2) as stimuli. Overall, synesthetes had a greater iconic memory capacity than nonsynesthetes when presented with synesthesia-inducing letter stimuli. This advantage was reduced when they were presented with non-synesthesia inducing symbol stimuli. Critically this advantage was most prominent when memory was stressed by asking participants to remember large arrays. Our results demonstrate that synesthetic memory advantages extend to the earliest stages of memory, and suggest that advantages in later stages of memory may arise from these earlier advantages.