Endophytes are hidden producers of maytansine in Putterlickia roots.

Several recent studies have lent evidence to the fact that certain so-called plant metabolites are actually biosynthesized by associated microorganisms. In this work, we show that the original source organism(s) responsible for the biosynthesis of the important anticancer and cytotoxic compound maytansine is the endophytic bacterial community harbored specifically within the roots of Putterlickia verrucosa and P. retrospinosa plants. Evaluation of the root endophytic community by chemical characterization of their fermentation products using HPLC-HRMS(n), along with a selective microbiological assay using the maytansine-sensitive type strain Hamigera avellanea revealed the endophytic production of maytansine. This was further confirmed by the presence of AHBA synthase genes in the root endophytic communities. Finally, MALDI-imaging-HRMS was used to demonstrate that maytansine produced by the endophytes is typically accumulated mainly in the root cortex of both plants. Our study, thus, reveals that maytansine is actually a biosynthetic product of root-associated endophytic microorganisms. The knowledge gained from this study provides fundamental insights on the biosynthesis of so-called plant metabolites by endophytes residing in distinct ecological niches.

Antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity of the ethanol extract, fractions and eight compounds isolated from Eriosema robustum (Fabaceae).

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial activity and the cytotoxicity of the ethanol crude extract, fractions and isolated compounds from the twigs of Eriosema robustum, a plant used for the treatment of coughs and skin diseases. METHODS: Column chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques were used to isolate and identify eight compounds, robusflavones A (1) and B (2), orostachyscerebroside A (3), stigmasterol (4), 1-O-heptatriacontanoyl glycerol (5), eicosanoic acid (6), 3-O-ß-D-glucopyranoside of sitosterol (7) and 6-prenylpinocembrin (8), from E. robustum. A two-fold serial microdilution method was used to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against fungi and bacteria, and the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide reduction assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxicity. RESULTS: Fraction B had significant antimicrobial activity against Aspergillus fumigatus and Cryptoccocus neoformans (MIC 0.08 mg/ml), whilst the crude extract and fraction A had moderate activity against A. fumigatus and Candida albicans (MIC 0.16 mg/ml). Fraction A however had excellent activity against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC 0.02 mg/ml), Enterococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli (MIC 0.04 mg/ml). The crude extract had significant activity against S. aureus, E. faecalis and E. coli. Fraction B had good activity against E. faecalis and E. coli (MIC 0.08 mg/ml). All the isolated compounds had a relatively weak antimicrobial activity. An MIC of 65 µg/ml was obtained with robusflavones A (1) and B (2) against C. albicans and A. fumigatus, orostachyscerebroside A (3) against A. fumigatus, and robusflavone B (2) against C. neoformans. Compound 8 had the best activity against bacteria (average MIC 55 µg/ml). The 3 fractions and isolated compounds had LC50 values between 13.20 to > 100 µg/ml against Vero cells yielding selectivity indices between 0.01 and 1.58. CONCLUSION: The isolated compounds generally had a much lower activity than expected based on the activity of the fractions from which they were isolated. This may be the result of synergism between different compounds in the complex extracts or fractions. The results support the traditional use of E. robustum to treat infections. The crude extract had a good activity and low preparation cost, and may be useful in topical applications to combat microbial infections.

HR-MALDI-MS imaging assisted screening of ß-carboline alkaloids discovered from Mycena metata.

Fruiting bodies of Mycena metata were screened for the presence of new secondary metabolites by means of HPLC-UV, LC-HR-ESIMS, and high-resolution matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (HR-MALDI-MS imaging). Thus, a new ß-carboline alkaloid, 6-hydroxymetatacarboline D (1d), was isolated from fruiting bodies of M. metata. 6-Hydroxymetatacarboline D consists of a highly substituted ß-carboline skeleton, which is likely to be derived biosynthetically from l-tryptophan, 2-oxoglutaric acid, l-threonine, and l-proline. The structure of the alkaloid was established by 2D NMR spectroscopic methods and HR-ESIMS. Moreover, by extensive application of LC-HR-ESIMS, LC-HR-ESIMS/MS, and LC-HR-ESIMS(3) techniques we were able to elucidate the structures of a number of accompanying ß-carboline alkaloids, 1a-1c, 1e-1i, and 2a-2g, structurally closely related to 6-hydroxymetatacarboline D, which are present in M. metata in minor amounts. The absolute configuration of the stereogenic centers of the ß-carboline alkaloids was determined by GC-MS comparison with authentic synthetic samples after hydrolytic cleavage and derivatization of the resulting amino acids.

Role of neuronal ras activity in adult hippocampal neurogenesis and cognition.

Hippocampal neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain is modulated by various signals like growth factors, hormones, neuropeptides, and neurotransmitters. All of these factors can (but not necessarily do) converge on the activation of the G protein Ras. We used a transgenic mouse model (synRas mice) expressing constitutively activated G12V-Harvey Ras selectively in differentiated neurons to investigate the possible effects onto neurogenesis. H-Ras activation in neurons attenuates hippocampal precursor cell generation at an early stage of the proliferative cascade before neuronal lineage determination occurs. Therefore it is unlikely that the transgenically activated H-Ras in neurons mediates this effect by a direct, intracellular signaling mechanism. Voluntary exercise restores neurogenesis up to wild type level presumably mediated by brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Reduced neurogenesis is linked to impairments in spatial short-term memory and object recognition, the latter can be rescued by voluntary exercise, as well. These data support the view that new cells significantly increase complexity that can be processed by the hippocampal network when experience requires high demands to associate stimuli over time and/or space.

Ras homolog enriched in brain (Rheb) enhances apoptotic signaling.

Rheb is a homolog of Ras GTPase that regulates cell growth, proliferation, and regeneration via mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Because of the well established potential of activated Ras to promote survival, we sought to investigate the ability of Rheb signaling to phenocopy Ras. We found that overexpression of lipid-anchored Rheb enhanced the apoptotic effects induced by UV light, TNFα, or tunicamycin in an mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1)-dependent manner. Knocking down endogenous Rheb or applying rapamycin led to partial protection, identifying Rheb as a mediator of cell death. Ras and c-Raf kinase opposed the apoptotic effects induced by UV light or TNFα but did not prevent Rheb-mediated apoptosis. To gain structural insight into the signaling mechanisms, we determined the structure of Rheb-GDP by NMR. The complex adopts the typical canonical fold of RasGTPases and displays the characteristic GDP-dependent picosecond to nanosecond backbone dynamics of the switch I and switch II regions. NMR revealed Ras effector-like binding of activated Rheb to the c-Raf-Ras-binding domain (RBD), but the affinity was 1000-fold lower than the Ras/RBD interaction, suggesting a lack of functional interaction. shRNA-mediated knockdown of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK-1) strongly reduced UV or TNFα-induced apoptosis and suppressed enhancement by Rheb overexpression. In conclusion, Rheb-mTOR activation not only promotes normal cell growth but also enhances apoptosis in response to diverse toxic stimuli via an ASK-1-mediated mechanism. Pharmacological regulation of the Rheb/mTORC1 pathway using rapamycin should take the presence of cellular stress into consideration, as this may have clinical implications.