Commentary on Kale et al. (2015): Further perspectives on the cognitive and demographic variables relevant to smoking cessation and the importance of smoking outcome expectancies.

It would be valuable to include expectancies when assessing predictors of smoking cessation attempts and the success of those outcome attempts.

Electronic Cigarette Use Among College Students: Links to Gender, Race/Ethnicity, Smoking, and Heavy Drinking.

OBJECTIVE: Electronic cigarette (e-cigarette) use continues to rise, and current data regarding use of e-cigarettes among college students are needed. The purpose of this study was to examine e-cigarette use and the relation of such use with gender, race/ethnicity, traditional tobacco use, and heavy drinking. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: A sample of 599 college students enrolled in General Psychology at a state university completed a self-report questionnaire. RESULTS: Twenty-nine percent of students reported prior use of e-cigarettes, with 14% reporting use in the past 30 days. E-cigarette use was linked to male gender but not to race/ethnicity. Dual use (ie, concurrent use of both traditional and e-cigarettes) was related to heavier use of traditional and e-cigarettes, and nicotine use was linked to pronounced rates of heavy drinking. CONCLUSIONS: E-cigarette use among college students is exponentially on the rise, and its co-use with alcohol may contribute to negative outcomes in this population.

Comparing college smokers' and dual users' expectancies towards cigarette smoking.

BACKGROUND: As no agreed upon definition exists for dual use (i.e., individuals who concurrently use more than one form of tobacco), this population remains largely unstudied in the substance use literature, despite increases in smokeless tobacco use among young adults. Individuals 18-25years of age report the highest rates of smokeless tobacco use, dual use, and cigarette use. The current study compared the smoking outcome expectancies of college student dual users to those who reported only smoking cigarettes. METHODS: The Short Form of the Smoking Consequences Questionnaire was used to examine potential differences in positive or negative expectations regarding cigarette use. RESULTS: Data from this study suggest that smokers believe that smoking will lead to greater positive consequences ("cigarettes taste good"), negative reinforcement ("cigarettes help me deal with anger"), and weight/appetite reduction ("smoking controls my appetite") when compared to dual users. Conversely, dual users believed that smoking would lead to greater negative consequences (e.g., "smoking is taking years off of my life"). DISCUSSION: These results may help to explain why some smokers choose not to use smokeless tobacco products for harm reduction or smoking cessation purposes, as well as why increases are being observed in smokeless tobacco rates among young adults.

The development and psychometric evaluation of the Smokeless Tobacco Expectancies Scale (STES).

Expectancies regarding the effects of various psychoactive substances are important predictors of the initiation and maintenance of substance use. Although measures of outcome expectancies exist for several addictive substances, there is currently no measure to assess smokeless tobacco (ST) expectancies in an adult population. This article presents 2 studies leading to the development and psychometric evaluation of the Smokeless Tobacco Expectancies Scale (STES). Initially, 155 individuals listed all outcomes they expected to occur if they were to use ST products. From these responses, an initial pool of potential STES items was identified. The STES was then administered to 2 samples totaling 813 individuals (265 ST users, 270 cigarette smokers, and 278 nontobacco users). The first study included 315 participants who completed a 68-item measure. An exploratory factor analysis identified 10 items that may account for individuals' ST expectancies. Items loaded on 2 factors: Negative Health Consequences and Positive Reinforcement. A confirmatory factor analysis on an independent sample (n = 498) supported the proposed factor structure. Furthermore, in both samples, the STES accurately discriminated ST users from smokers and nonusers. Findings are discussed in terms of the potential uses of the STES for advancing the understanding of ST use.