Transportation capacity for patients with highly infectious diseases in Europe: a survey in 16 nations.

Highly infectious diseases (HIDs) are defined as being transmissible from person to person, causing life-threatening illnesses and presenting a serious public health hazard. In most European Union member states specialized isolation facilities are responsible for the management of such cases. Ground ambulances are often affiliated with those facilities because rapid relocation of patients is most desirable. To date, no pooled data on the accessibility, technical specifications and operational procedures for such transport capacities are available. During 2009, the 'European Network for HIDs' conducted a cross-sectional analysis of hospitals responsible for HID patients in Europe including an assessment of (a) legal aspects; (b) technical and infrastructure aspects; and (c) operational procedures for ground ambulances used for HID transport. Overall, 48 isolation facilities in 16 European countries were evaluated and feedback rates ranged from 78% to 100% (n = 37 to n = 48 centres). Only 46.8% (22/47) of all centres have both national and local guidelines regulating HID patient transport. If recommended, specific equipment is found in 90% of centres (9/10), but standard ambulances in only 6/13 centres (46%). Exclusive entrances (32/45; 71%) and pathways (30/44; 68.2%) for patient admission, as well as protocols for disinfection of ambulances (34/47; 72.3%) and equipment (30/43; 69.8%) exist in most centres. In conclusion, the availability and technical specifications of ambulances broadly differ, reflecting different preparedness levels within the European Union. Hence, regulations for technical specifications and operational procedures should be harmonized to promote patient and healthcare worker safety.

[Mandatory reporting of antimicrobial-resistant pathogens. What should, what can be achieved? : assessment related to the particular facility seems crucial]. / Meldepflicht für Antibiotika-resistente Erreger. Was soll, was kann sie leisten? : Die Bewertung in Bezug auf die jeweilige Einrichtung erscheint wichtig.

Antimicrobial-resistant organisms are regarded as a particular threat to the public health of the European population. In Germany the requirement for a national rollout reporting of positive laboratory test results for methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in blood cultures was implemented in 2009. This was followed in 2011 by the introduction of a laboratory-based, rollout reporting system for the detection of gram-negative bacteria with acquired carbapenem-resistance (carbapenem-resistant organisms, CRO) in the federal state of Hessen. This article will present the experience gained in Frankfurt am Main with the existing reporting system. Blood or cerebrospinal fluid cultures positive for MRSA were reported from all Frankfurt clinics between 2010 and 2013. The objective of preventing nosocomial infections by introducing a mandatory reporting for MRSA in blood cultures was only partially achieved by the reporting procedure on a population scale. Instead, reporting on a clinic-based scale, i.e., incidence per 1,000 patient days should be used. Moreover, mandatory reporting of clusters of nosocomial colonizations with MRSA could be an appropriate measure for the timely prevention of nosocomial infections with these organisms. CROs were reported from nearly all clinics as well as the ambulatory setting. Different reporting criteria have resulted not only in a greatly varying workload for the institutions and the health authorities but also in vastly different numbers of reported events. Regarding the importance of CRO, mandatory reporting seems reasonable. Criteria of reporting should be simple and easily comprehensible, i.e., all 4MRGN (gram-negative bacteria with resistance against four antibiotic groups such as acylureidopenicillins, third- and fourth-generation cephalosporins, fluorchinolones, and carbapenems) according to the German Commission on Hospital Hygiene and Infection Prevention (KRINKO) should be considered. Reporting and evaluation of multidrug-resistant organisms (MDRO) in a population-based system does not seem to be sufficient regarding these organisms with high importance for hospital hygiene; mandatory reporting on an anonymous clinic-based scale should be used.

[Nosocomial measles infections]. / Nosokomiale Maserninfektionen.

Measles is re-emerging in several developed countries because of suboptimal vaccination coverage. Health-care facilities play a crucial role in the transmission of measles infection. Nosocomial measles may contribute for an important part of cases in measles epidemics, especially in countries where measles is largely under control. The risk of acquiring measles is estimated to be 2 to 19 times higher for susceptible healthcare personnel (HCP) than for the general population. Measles vaccination of HCP should be included by all health care facilities as part of a strict occupational health program. All HCP should have documented evidence of measles immunity. Immunity against measles should be a prerequisite for working in areas where the most vulnerable patients are cared for. Both occupational and public health measures are needed to ensure that nosocomial measles should be comprehensively monitored and consistently prevented.

Tuberculosis skin test, but not interferon-γ-releasing assays is affected by BCG vaccination in HIV patients.

OBJECTIVE: Of this study was to compare the results of tuberculin skin test (TST) with two interferon-γ releasing-assays (IGRA) in a cohort of HIV positive patients, to analyze impact of prior Bacille-Calmette-Guérin (BCG)-vaccination. METHODS: Prospective cross sectional study, enrolling only asymptomatic adult HIV infected outpatients from a large German University hospital clinic. All participants were simultaneously tested for latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) by QuantiFERON-TB Gold, T-SPOT.TB and TST. Only individuals with available definite results (positive/negative, indeterminates excluded) from all three test systems and recalling BCG-vaccination status by interview questionnaire were evaluated. RESULTS: From 286 study participants, 133 were evaluable; BCG-vaccination history was positive for 18 individuals, and negative for 115. The proportion of individuals with a positive TST was significantly higher for vaccinated (n = 6, 33.3%) than for unvaccinated individuals (n = 13, 11.3%, p = 0.013). There were no significant differences in the proportion of patients with CDC stage C, origin from a TB endemic country or in the CD4 count between the two groups. CONCLUSION: TST but not IGRAs interfered significantly with prior BCG vaccination in a cohort of HIV infected individuals from a low prevalence TB country. Therefore IGRA should preferentially be used for LTBI-testing in BCG-vaccinated adult HIV-patients.

[Influenza vaccination rates in Hessian hospitals]. / Influenzaimpfquoten in hessischen Krankenhäusern.

Influenza infections have been shown to spread in hospitals rapidly; nosocomial transmissions occur frequently. Influenza vaccination of health care personnel (HCP) is an effective strategy for preventing influenza infections among personnel and patients. In summer 2011 we conducted an anonymous questionnaire among Hessian hospitals assessing influenza vaccination rates, kind and concept of vaccination programmes. Overall, 95.8% (68/71) of hospitals surveyed offered influenza vaccinations for HCP free of charge. Influenza vaccination rates have been recorded only by 70.4% (50/71). Over 80% (season 2009/2010: 41/50- season 2010/2011: 44/50) of hospitals questioned, mentioned influenza vaccination rates under 20%. Our findings confirm that the influenza vaccination rates might be less than the generally assumed and communicated influenza vaccination rates of 20-25%. Thirty years since the German Standing Committee on Vaccination (STIKO) recommended that all HCP get vaccinated against influenza, vaccination rates still remain below 30%. Measures to improve influenza vaccination rates among HCP are required. Monitoring of vaccination rates is a precondition to assess the acceptance of a vaccination programme.

[Prevention of nosocomial transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) from HIV-positive healthcare workers. Recommendations of the German Association for the Control of Viral Diseases (DVV) e.V. and the Society for Virology (GfV) e.V]. / Prävention der nosokomialen Übertragung von humanem Immunschwächevirus (HIV) durch HIV-positive Mitarbeiterinnen und Mitarbeiter im Gesundheitswesen. Empfehlungen der Deutschen Vereinigung zur Bekämpfung der Viruskrankheiten (DVV) e.V. und der Gesellschaft für Virologie (GfV) e.V.

To the best of our knowledge, the German Association for the Control of Viral Diseases (DVV) e.V. and the Society for Virology (GfV) e.V. are the first in Europe to provide precise recommendations for the management of health care workers (HCWs) who are infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Requirements for HIV-infected HCWs need to be clearly defined. With a permanent viral burden of less than or equal to 50 copies/mL, HIV-positive HCWs are allowed to perform any surgery and any invasive procedure, as long as the infected HCW uses double-gloving, undergoes follow-up routinely by occupational medicine professionals, undergoes a quarterly examination of viral burden, and has a regular medical examination by a physician who has expertise in the management of HIV. Unrestricted professional activity is only possible with a strict compliance to take antiretroviral therapy and if the HIV-infected HCW strictly adheres to the recommended infection control procedures. Complete compliance with the recommendation almost certainly leads to no HIV transmission risk in patient care.

Toxicogenomic profiles in relation to maternal immunotoxic exposure and immune functionality in newborns.

A crucial period for the development of the immune system occurs in utero. This results in a high fetal vulnerability to immunotoxic exposure, and indeed, immunotoxic effects have been reported, demonstrating negative effects on immune-related health outcomes and immune functionality. Within the NewGeneris cohort BraMat, a subcohort of the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), immunotoxicity was demonstrated for polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins, showing associations between estimated maternal intake levels and reduced measles vaccination responses in the offspring at the age of 3. The present study aimed to investigate this link at the transcriptomic level within the same BraMat cohort. To this end, whole-genome gene expression in cord blood was investigated and found to be associated with maternal Food Frequency Questionnaires-derived exposure estimates and with vaccination responses in children at 3 years of age. Because the literature reports gender specificity in the innate, humoral, and cell-mediated responses to viral vaccines, separate analysis for males and females was conducted. Separate gene sets for male and female neonates were identified, comprising genes significantly correlating with both 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzodioxin (TCDD) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) exposure and with measles vaccination response. Noteworthy, genes correlating negatively with exposure in general show positive correlations with antibody levels and vice versa. For both sexes, these included immune-related genes, suggesting immunosuppressive effects of maternal exposure to TCDD and PCB at the transcriptomic level in neonates in relation to measles vaccination response 3 years later.

Infection control practices in facilities for highly infectious diseases across Europe.

BACKGROUND: The management of patients with highly infectious diseases (HIDs) is a challenge for healthcare provision requiring a high level of care without compromising the safety of other patients and healthcare workers. AIM: To study the infection control practice in isolation facilities participating in the European Network for Highly Infectious Diseases (EuroNHID) project. METHODS: A survey was conducted during 2009 of 48 isolation facilities caring for patients with HIDs in 16 European countries. Checklists and standard evaluation forms were used to collect and interpret data on hand hygiene, routine hygiene and disinfection, and waste management. FINDINGS: Forty percent of HIDs had no non-hand-operated sinks or alcohol-based antiseptic distributors, while 27% did not have procedures for routine hygiene, final disinfection, or safe discarding of non-disposable objects or equipment. There was considerable variation in the management of waste and in the training of housekeeping personnel. EuroNHID has developed recommendations for hand hygiene, disinfection, routine hygiene, and waste management. CONCLUSIONS: Most aspects of hand hygiene, routine hygiene and disinfection, and waste management were considered at least partially adequate in the majority of European isolation facilities dedicated for the care of patients with HIDs. But considerable variability was observed, with management of waste and training of housekeeping personnel being generally less satisfactory.

Tuberculosis among drug users and homeless persons: impact of voluntary X-ray investigation on active case finding.

BACKGROUND: Illicit drug use and homelessness are major contributors to the incidence of tuberculosis (TB) among inhabitants of major cities. OBJECTIVE: The primary objective of this study was to establish a sustainable low-threshold chest X-ray screening programme for pulmonary TB among illicit drug users and homeless persons and to integrate this into the existing public health programme for active case finding. A secondary objective was to estimate the coverage of the programme, assess other risk factors and determine TB rates and treatment outcome in these two groups. METHODS: Illicit drug users and homeless persons were asked to voluntarily participate in an X-ray screening programme. The coverage of the intervention, total number and characteristics of cases and the follow-up of treatment were assessed. RESULTS: A total of 4,529 chest radiographs were made from 3,477 persons, of whom 66% were homeless and 34% were illicit drug users, between May 2002 and April 2007. Coverage for screening once every 2 years ranged between 18 and 26%. Thirty-nine TB cases (14 drug users, 25 homeless persons) were identified, representing 8.7% of the total case load of 448 notified cases of pulmonary TB in Frankfurt during this period. Among the drug users, human immunodeficiency virus coinfection (10/14) seemed to play a key role in the development of TB. The case-finding rate of 861/100,000 radiographs (1,122/100,000 persons) is as high as that in routine contact investigations (1,078/100,000). Among all individuals with TB, 76% completed treatment. CONCLUSION: A novel targeted TB screening approach with voluntary radiographic examination of illicit drug users and homeless persons can be integrated into the existing public TB prevention programme and provides a high case-finding rate.

Transcriptomic fingerprints in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells indicative of genotoxic and non-genotoxic carcinogenic exposure.

For evaluating genotoxic exposure in human populations a number of biomarkers has been successfully applied over the last 30 years to determine early biological effects due to exposure to carcinogens. Despite their success, these early biological effect markers provide limited mechanistic insight, and do not allow detection of exposure to non-genotoxic carcinogens. Gene expression profiling forms a promising tool for the development of new biomarkers in blood cells to overcome these limitations. The aim of our research was to identify novel genomics-based candidate markers for genotoxic and non-genotoxic carcinogen exposure in human peripheral blood cells (PBMC). Whole genome gene expression changes were investigated following 20 h of in vitro exposure to a high and low concentration of eight genotoxic and three non-genotoxic carcinogenic compounds using whole genome microarrays. Per condition, PBMC of five independent donors were exposed, all in the presence of human liver S9. Sets of genes, as well as biological pathways indicative of genotoxic exposure and of non-genotoxic carcinogenic exposure were identified. Furthermore, networks were built using the genotoxic and non-genotoxic gene sets, showing the majority of the genes to be interlinked and revealing distinctive transcription factors for both classes. The identification of these potential candidate marker genes might contribute to the development of genomic based biomarkers of carcinogen exposure.

[Costs of the influenza pandemic for the public health services - calculations based on the model of the metropolitan region Frankfurt am Main]. / Inkrementelle Kosten der A/H1N1-Pandemie für den Öffentlichen Gesundheitsdienst - Berechnungen am Beispiel der Metropole Frankfurt am Main.

The influenza pandemic of 2009 has been the biggest challenge to the public health services in post-war Germany. This study investigates the impact on the overall costs for the public health authorities of the metropolitan region Frankfurt am Main which arose in the context of the pandemic as well as the specific costs of the implementation and realisation of the vaccination campaign during the pandemic. In 2009 the incremental costs for the Health Protection Authority of the City of Frankfurt am Main for the prevention and logistics caused by this pandemic amounted to € 223,537.91, whereas costs which could be directly attributed to the vaccination campaign (vaccine not included amounted to only a fraction thereof (€â€Š45,401.48). The per-capita costs for vaccinated citizens were €â€Š10.66.  These results clearly demonstrate the importance of adequate financial resources for the public health authorities to cope with infectious disease outbreaks and future pandemics.

[Web-based evidence of treatment capacity. An instrument for optimizing the interface between prehospital and hospital management]. / Web-basierter Versorgungskapazitätsnachweis. Ein Instrument zur Schnittstellenoptimierung zwischen Präklinik und Klinik.

BACKGROUND: The outcome of injured patients depends on intrastractural circumstances as well as on the time until clinical treatment begins. A rapid patient allocation can only be achieved occur if informations about the care capacity status of the medical centers are available. Considering this an improvement at the interface prehospital/clinical care seems possible. MATERIAL AND METHOD: In 2010 in Frankfurt am Main the announcement of free capacity (positive proof) was converted to a web-based negative proof of interdisciplinary care capacities. So-called closings are indicated in a web portal, recorded centrally and registered at the local health authority and the management of participating hospitals. RESULTS: Analyses of the allocations to hospitals of all professional disciplines from the years 2009 and 2010 showed an optimized use of the resources. A decline of the allocations by the order from 261 to 0 could be reached by the introduction of the clear care capacity proof system. The health authorities as the regulating body rarely had to intervene (decline from 400 to 7 cases). Surgical care in Frankfurt was guaranteed at any time by one of the large medical centers. CONCLUSION: The web-based care capacity proof system introduced in 2010 does justice to the demand for optimum resource use on-line. Integration of this allocation system into the developing trauma networks can optimize the process for a quick and high quality care of severely injured patients. It opens new approaches to improve allocation of high numbers of casualties in disaster medicine.

[MRSA bloodstream infections in hospitals in Frankfurt/Main, Germany, 2010 : Results of the mandatory notification and suggestions for improvement]. / MRSA in Blutkulturen in Frankfurter Krankenhäusern 2010 : Ergebnisse der Meldepflicht nach Infektionsschutzgesetz und Vorschläge zu ihrer Verbesserung.

Since 1 July 2009 in accordance with the statuary order based on the German law for infectious diseases (Infektionsschutzgesetz), MRSA in blood and liquor must be notified to the public health authorities. The aim of extension of the notification to report is to improve the surveillance of nosocomial infections and the prevention of nosocomial MRSA infections. In addition to MRSA detection, data on symptoms and risk factors, e.g., medical devices, must also be reported. In this report, data of bloodstream MRSA infections in hospitals in Frankfurt/Main, Germany, for the first complete year (2010)were evaluated. In 2010, 58 MRSA-positive bloodstream infections were reported by the 17 hospitals in Frankfurt to the health protection authorities, i.e., 0.0360 MRSA/1,000 patient-days (range: 0- 0.109/1,000 patient-days). However, 10 of these infections initially had not been reported to the public health department in charge for the hospitals, but to the health departments according to the patient's addresses. Although most of the infections were reported from large hospitals (>100,000 patient-days/year), the highest incidences (0.0416/1,000 patient-days) were reported from small hospitals (<50,000 patient-days/year). Of the blood specimen, 13 (22.4%) were drawn on the first day of hospital stay, thus, indicating an imported infection. While 90% of the patients with MRSA in the bloodstream suffered from fever, 80% had sepsis and 34.5% suffered from pneumonia. Medical devices, such as central venous catheters and PEG, were reported from 60% of the patients. In the MRE network Rhine-Main region, the public health authorities asked for some more detailed information, such as risk factors for MRSA colonization (history for MRSA, recent hospital stay or antibiotic therapy, skin disorders, dialysis, residence in a retirements home), and for screening results as well as for the MRSA management, i.e., isolation of the patient and, if necessary, the contact patient. In 55% of the cases, the patients were identified by the clinics themselves as being patients with MRSA risk factors, mainly because of a history of MRSA (29%), recent hospital stay (71%), and antibiotic therapy during the last 6 months (52%). Screening was performed in 31 (53%) of the patients, most of them (71%) with positive MRSA nose swab. If the patients were screened, significantly fewer contact patients had to be screened and isolated later. Thus, to improve surveillance data on MRSA bloodstream infections, the notification route to the public health authorities responsible for the clinic hosting the patient must be strictly obeyed in order to avoid underreporting und underassessment of nosocomial infection. Although asking for clinical symptoms may be useful to validate the result in some cases, focus should be placed on risk factors and risk management, including screening and isolation. Only then can the aim of improving surveillance and reduction of nosocomial MRSA infection be achieved.

The impact of the 2009 influenza A(H1N1) pandemic on attitudes of healthcare workers toward seasonal influenza vaccination 2010/11.

The emergence of the influenza A(H1N1)2009 virus provided a major challenge to health services around the world. However, vaccination rates for the public and for healthcare workers (HCWs) have remained low. We performed a study to review the reasons put forward by HCWs to refuse immunisation with the pandemic vaccine in 2009/10 and characterise attitudes in the influenza season 2010/11 due to the emergence of influenza A(H1N1)2009. A survey among HCWs and medical students in the clinical phase of their studies was conducted, using an anonymous questionnaire, at a German university hospital during an influenza vaccination campaign. 1,366 of 3,900 HCWs (35.0%) were vaccinated in the 2010/11 influenza season. Of the vaccinated HCWs, 1,323 (96.9%) completed the questionnaire in addition to 322 vaccinated medical students. Of the 1,645 vaccinees who completed the questionnaire, 712 had not been vaccinated against the influenza A(H1N1)2009 virus in the 2009/10 season. The main reason put forward was the objection to the AS03 adjuvants (239/712, 33.6%). Of the HCWs and students surveyed, 270 of 1,645 (16.4%) stated that the pandemic had influenced their attitude towards vaccination in general. Many German HCWs remained unconvinced of the safety of the pandemic (adjuvanted) influenza vaccine. For this reason, effective risk communication should focus on educating the public and HCWs about influenza vaccine safety and the benefits of vaccination.

[Measles in 2010. Knowledge and vaccination status of medical students]. / Masern im Jahr 2010. Wissensstand und Impfstatus von Medizinstudenten.

OBJECTIVES: In 2002, the WHO Regional Office for Europe developed a strategic plan for measles in the WHO European Region. WHO recommends that at least 95% of children receive two doses of measles vaccine. This plan targeted the elimination of measles for the year 2010 and is supported by the Federal Republic of Germany. METHODS: Questionnaire survey, serological tests and check-up of the certificates of vaccination were offered to second year medical students of Goethe University Frankfurt/Main, Germany. RESULTS: Only 62.3% of medical students had received two doses of measles vaccine. Serological data showed that 23.1% were not immune against measles. Important gaps of knowledge were identified in the knowledge test of the survey; less than one third of the students (n=95/324) were able to answer more than 50% of the questions correctly. DISCUSSION: The suboptimum measles-vaccination coverage shows that the goal of eliminating measles will not be met across Europe by the target year 2010. Both occupational and public health measures need to make sure that vaccination programs should achieve a minimum of 95% coverage with two doses. In addition, the obligation to notify the authorities even of suspected cases serve the same purpose and measures to improve the knowledge of medical students are required. Consequent surveillance systems are necessary to investigate chains of measles infections. Healthcare workers play a decisive role in this issue.

New influenza A/H1N1 ("swine flu"): information needs of airport passengers and staff.

BACKGROUND: Airports are the entrances of infectious diseases. Particularly at the beginning of an outbreak, information and communication play an important role to enable the early detection of signs or symptoms and to encourage passengers to adopt appropriate preventive behaviour to limit the spread of the disease. OBJECTIVES: To determine the adequacy of the information provided to airport passengers and staff in meeting their information needs in relation to their concerns. METHODS: At the start of the influenza A/H1N1 epidemic (29-30 April 2009), qualitative semi-structured interviews (N = 101) were conducted at Frankfurt International Airport with passengers who were either returning from or going to Mexico and with airport staff who had close contact with these passengers. Interviews focused on knowledge about swine flu, information needs and fear or concern about the outbreak. RESULTS: The results showed that a desire for more information was associated with higher concern - the least concerned participants did not want any additional information, while the most concerned participants reported a range of information needs. Airport staff in contact with passengers travelling from the epicentre of the outbreak showed the highest levels of fear or concern, coupled with a desire to be adequately briefed by their employer. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that information strategies should address not only the exposed or potentially exposed but also groups that feel at risk. Identifying what information these different passenger and staff groups wish to receive will be an important task in any future infectious disease outbreak.

[Management of the influenza pandemic on a local health authority level]. / Management der Influenzapandemie auf kommunaler Ebene.

In most cities and districts, the influenza pandemic of 2009 could be handled without any restrictions in providing medical care or any disturbance in public life. Despite its relatively mild course, the local public health services reached their limits of capacity. Based on nationwide regulations, the local management determines the success of the measures. Evaluating the experience on the community level offers the chance of facing future pandemics more efficiently. Press conferences, press releases, and the internet are the most reliable tools to inform the public even in terms of personnel expenses. Telephone conferences and internet platforms help to reduce time-consuming meetings. An electronic database and logbook provide up-to-date information for all parties involved and allow quick, rational, coordinated, and transparent decision-making. Local evaluation of registration data, reports on cases of illness, and the availability of hospital beds on a daily basis allow intervention at an early stage to cope with the pandemic efficiently and helps save resources. Recruitment of external personnel, e.g., for the call center and the vaccination campaign, relieves the public health employees in charge with respect to their main tasks of directing and management functions.

[Low influenza vaccination rates among healthcare workers. Time to take a different approach]. / Niedrige Influenzaimpfquoten bei Mitarbeitern im Gesundheitswesen. Zeit für einen neuen Ansatz.

Despite decades of effort to encourage healthcare workers (HCWs) to be immunized against influenza, vaccination levels remain insufficient in Germany, with only one in five HCWs receiving the annual influenza vaccination. To prevent nosocomial influenza outbreaks and to ensure the protection of patients and HCWs, new approaches to increase vaccination rates are needed. The experience in the USA has shown that declination forms have increased vaccination coverage. One possible approach for Germany would be a combination of declination forms with the exclusive use of vaccinated staff in defined areas. This approach would respect a HCWs decision to refuse medical treatment, while at the same time protecting vulnerable patients. In addition, the influenza vaccination rates of HCWs should be collected in order to evaluate the implementation of vaccination policies. Similar to the setting of desired vaccination coverage for the chronically ill, a clearly defined vaccination goal should be established for HCWs.