Egress of sperm autoantigen from seminiferous tubules maintains systemic tolerance.

Autoimmune responses to meiotic germ cell antigens (MGCA) that are expressed on sperm and testis occur in human infertility and after vasectomy. Many MGCA are also expressed as cancer/testis antigens (CTA) in human cancers, but the tolerance status of MGCA has not been investigated. MGCA are considered to be uniformly immunogenic and nontolerogenic, and the prevailing view posits that MGCA are sequestered behind the Sertoli cell barrier in seminiferous tubules. Here, we have shown that only some murine MGCA are sequestered. Nonsequestered MCGA (NS-MGCA) egressed from normal tubules, as evidenced by their ability to interact with systemically injected antibodies and form localized immune complexes outside the Sertoli cell barrier. NS-MGCA derived from cell fragments that were discarded by spermatids during spermiation. They egressed as cargo in residual bodies and maintained Treg-dependent physiological tolerance. In contrast, sequestered MGCA (S-MGCA) were undetectable in residual bodies and were nontolerogenic. Unlike postvasectomy autoantibodies, which have been shown to mainly target S-MGCA, autoantibodies produced by normal mice with transient Treg depletion that developed autoimmune orchitis exclusively targeted NS-MGCA. We conclude that spermiation, a physiological checkpoint in spermatogenesis, determines the egress and tolerogenicity of MGCA. Our findings will affect target antigen selection in testis and sperm autoimmunity and the immune responses to CTA in male cancer patients.

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone and gonadal steroids regulate transcription factor mRNA expression in primary pituitary and immortalized gonadotrope cells.

Hormonal regulation of pituitary gonadotropin gene expression has been attributed to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)-mediated stimulation of immediate early gene expression and gonadal steroid interactions with their respective nuclear receptors. A number of orphan nuclear receptors including steroidogenic factor 1, liver receptor homologue 1, dosage-sensitive sex reversal, adrenal hypoplasia critical region, on chromosome X, gene 1, and chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factors I/II as well as the GATA family members, GATA2 and GATA4, have also been implicated in transcriptional regulation of the gonadotropin genes. We hypothesized that hormonally mediated changes in these latter transcription factors may provide an additional mechanism for mediating hormonal effects beyond the more classically appreciated pathways. In these studies, we demonstrate significant regulation of orphan nuclear receptor and GATA messenger RNA levels by GnRH, dihydrotestosterone, estradiol, and progesterone in both cultured primary pituitary cells and gonadotrope-derived cell line, LßT2. These results advance our understanding of the complex mechanisms by which GnRH and steroid hormones achieve precise regulation of anterior pituitary function.

Interaction of gonadal steroids and gonadotropin-releasing hormone on pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and PACAP receptor expression in cultured rat anterior pituitary cells.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and its receptors are expressed in the hypothalamus, the gonadotrope cells of the anterior pituitary gland, and the gonads, forming an autocrine-paracrine system in these tissues. Within the pituitary, PACAP functions either alone or synergistically with gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to stimulate gonadotropin gene expression and secretion. Our goal was to define the hormonal regulation of pituitary PACAP and PACAP receptor (PAC1) gene expression by dihydrotestosterone (DHT), estradiol, and progesterone alone or in conjunction with GnRH. Treatment of adult male rat pituitary cell cultures with DHT or progesterone augmented GnRH-mediated increase in PACAP messenger RNA (mRNA) levels, but neither had an effect when present alone. Conversely, estradiol treatment blunted PACAP gene expression but did not alter GnRH effects on PACAP expression. Expression of PACAP receptor mRNA was decreased by GnRH treatment, minimally increased by DHT treatment, but not altered by the addition of estradiol or progesterone. DHT and GnRH together blunted PACAP receptor gene expression. Taken together, these results suggest that the activity of the intrapituitary PACAP-PAC1 system is regulated via the complex interaction of gonadal steroids and hypothalamic GnRH.

GATA augments GNRH-mediated increases in Adcyap1 gene expression in pituitary gonadotrope cells.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide 1 (PACAP or ADCYAP1) regulates gonadotropin biosynthesis and secretion, both alone and in conjunction with GNRH. Initially identified as a hypothalamic-releasing factor, ADCYAP1 subsequently has been identified in pituitary gonadotropes, suggesting it may act as an autocrine-paracrine factor in this tissue. GNRH has been shown to increase pituitary Adcyap1 gene expression through the interaction of CREB and jun/fos with CRE/AP1 cis-elements in the proximal promoter. In these studies, we were interested in identifying additional transcription factors and cognate cis-elements which regulate Adcyap1 gene promoter activity and chose to focus on the GATA family of transcription factors known to be critical for both pituitary cell differentiation and gonadotropin subunit expression. By transient transfection and electrophoretic mobility shift assay analysis, we demonstrate that GATA2 and GATA4 stimulate Adcyap1 promoter activity via a GATA cis-element located at position -191 in the rat Adcyap1 gene promoter. Furthermore, we show that addition of GATA2 or GATA4 significantly augments GNRH-mediated stimulation of Adcyap1 gene promoter activity in the gonadotrope LßT2 cell line. Conversely, blunting GATA expression with specific siRNA inhibits the ability of GNRH to stimulate ADCYAP1 mRNA levels in these cells. These data demonstrate a complex interaction between GNRH and GATA on ADCYAP1 expression, providing important new insights into the regulation of gonadotrope function.

Androgen receptor drives transcription of rat PACAP in gonadotrope cells.

Gonadotropin expression is precisely regulated within the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis through the complex interaction of neuropeptides, gonadal steroids. and both gonadal- and pituitary-derived peptides. In the anterior pituitary gland, the neuropeptide pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) modulates gonadotropin biosynthesis and secretion, acting both alone and in conjunction with GnRH. Steroid hormone feedback also influences gonadotropin expression via both direct and indirect mechanisms. Evidence from nonpituitary tissues suggests that PACAP may be a target for gonadal steroid regulation. In the present study, we show that androgen markedly stimulates rat (r) PACAP promoter-reporter activity in the LßT2 mature mouse gonadotrope cell line. 5'-Serial deletion analysis of reporter constructs identifies 2 regions of androgen responsiveness located at (-915 to -818) and (-308 to -242) of the rPACAP promoter. Androgen receptor (AR) binds directly to DNA cis-elements in each of these regions in vitro. Site-directed mutagenesis of 3 conserved hormone response element half-sites straddling the (-308 to -242) region dramatically blunts androgen-dependent PACAP promoter activity and prevents AR binding at the mutated promoter element. Chromatin immunoprecipitation demonstrates that endogenous AR binds the homologous region on mouse chromatin in LßT2 cells in both the presence and absence of androgen. These data demonstrate that androgen stimulates PACAP gene expression in the pituitary gonadotrope via direct binding of AR to a specific cluster of evolutionarily conserved hormone response elements in the proximal rPACAP gene promoter. Thus, androgen regulation of pituitary PACAP expression may provide an additional layer of control over gonadotropin expression within the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis: a review of the literature.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP), an ancient molecule highly preserved across species, has been classified as a member of the secretin/glucagon/vasoactive intestinal peptide/growth hormone-releasing hormone polypeptide family. PACAP was first identified as a hypothalamic-releasing factor; nevertheless, it has subsequently been determined to have widespread distribution and function, including expression in the pituitary, gonads, placenta, central and peripheral nervous systems, intestinal tract, and adrenal gland. Consistent with its widespread distribution, PACAP has been found to exert pleiotropic effects. Although first described over 20 years ago, only relatively recently has substantial attention turned to evaluating PACAP's role in the reproductive system. This review will focus on our current understanding of the expression pattern and function of PACAP in the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis.

GnRH decreases adiponectin expression in pituitary gonadotropes via the calcium and PKA pathways.

As endocrinologically active cells, adipocytes are capable of secreting various adipocytokines such as leptin, resistin, and adiponectin to impact metabolic function. Although adipocytes remain to be the primary site of synthesis and secretion, there is now growing evidence that supports the presence of adiponectin and its receptors within the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis, providing a possible link between obesity and abnormal reproductive physiology. It has been demonstrated that adiponectin may reduce gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secretion from the hypothalamus as well as modulate gonadal steroid hormone production. Furthermore, prior data indicate that adiponectin may play a role in decreasing luteinizing hormone secretion from pituitary gonadotropes. We aimed to identify the hormonal regulators of adiponectin and its receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, in pituitary gonadotropes using immortalized gonadotropic LßT2 cells and primary rat pituitary cells. Our study shows significant alterations in adiponectin expression across the estrous cycle. In addition, we present a novel finding that GnRH suppresses pituitary adiponectin expression via the calcium and protein kinase A intracellular pathways in both cultured rat primary pituitary cells and the LßT2 gonadotrope cell line. The GnRH did not alter expression of the adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, in cultured gonadotropes. Expression of the adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2, was not altered by GnRH in cell culture but in vivo or in vitro. Our data suggest that gonadotrope function may be modulated by GnRH-mediated changes in adiponectin expression.

GnRH stimulates expression of PACAP in the pituitary gonadotropes via both the PKA and PKC signaling systems.

Recent studies have demonstrated a clear role for pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) in the regulation of gonadotropin biosynthesis and secretion, both alone and in conjunction with GnRH. First defined as a hypothalamic releasing factor, PACAP subsequently has been identified in the gonadotrope subpopulation of the anterior pituitary gland, suggesting that PACAP may act as an autocrine-paracrine factor in this tissue. In initial studies, we determined that GnRH markedly stimulated endogenous PACAP mRNA levels and promoter-reporter activity in the mature gonadotrope cell line, LbetaT2. GnRH-stimulated rat PACAP promoter activity was blunted with deletion from position -915 to -402 and eliminated with further truncation to position -77 relative to the transcriptional start site. Site-directed mutagenesis demonstrated a functional requirement for a cAMP response element (CRE)-like site at position -205 and an activating protein-1 (AP-1)-like site at position -275, both of which bound CRE binding protein and AP-1 family members on EMSA. Treatment with pharmacological activators or inhibitors of second messenger signaling pathways implicated the protein kinase A, protein kinase C, and MAPK pathways in the GnRH response. In support of these in vitro data, we demonstrate that JunB binds to the rat PACAP gene promoter by chromatin immunoprecipitation assay and that small interfering RNA knockdown of JunB, cFos, and CRE binding protein factors blunts PACAP expression. In summary, these results further elucidate the complex functional interactions between PACAP and GnRH in the anterior pituitary. Specifically, these studies demonstrate that GnRH-stimulated PACAP gene expression is mediated via multiple signaling pathways acting on CRE/AP-1 sites in the proximal gene promoter. Because both PACAP and GnRH regulate gonadotropin biosynthesis and secretion, these results provide important insight into the critical fine tuning of gonadotrope function and, thereby, the maintenance of normal reproductive function.