ABSTRACT
Commitment to and completion of sexual development are essential for malaria parasites (protists of the genus Plasmodium) to be transmitted through mosquitoes. The molecular mechanism(s) responsible for commitment have been hitherto unknown. Here we show that PbAP2-G, a conserved member of the apicomplexan AP2 (ApiAP2) family of DNA-binding proteins, is essential for the commitment of asexually replicating forms to sexual development in Plasmodium berghei, a malaria parasite of rodents. PbAP2-G was identified from mutations in its encoding gene, PBANKA_143750, which account for the loss of sexual development frequently observed in parasites transmitted artificially by blood passage. Systematic gene deletion of conserved ApiAP2 genes in Plasmodium confirmed the role of PbAP2-G and revealed a second ApiAP2 member (PBANKA_103430, here termed PbAP2-G2) that significantly modulates but does not abolish gametocytogenesis, indicating that a cascade of ApiAP2 proteins are involved in commitment to the production and maturation of gametocytes. The data suggest a mechanism of commitment to gametocytogenesis in Plasmodium consistent with a positive feedback loop involving PbAP2-G that could be exploited to prevent the transmission of this pernicious parasite.
Subject(s)
DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Germ Cells/growth & development , Malaria/parasitology , Plasmodium berghei/genetics , Plasmodium berghei/physiology , Protozoan Proteins/metabolism , Sexual Development/genetics , Animals , Culicidae/parasitology , DNA-Binding Proteins/deficiency , DNA-Binding Proteins/genetics , Feedback, Physiological , Female , Gene Expression Regulation , Germ Cells/cytology , Germ Cells/metabolism , Male , Mutation/genetics , Plasmodium berghei/cytology , Protein Transport , Protozoan Proteins/genetics , Reproduction, Asexual , Transcription, GeneticABSTRACT
The p53 cofactor Strap (stress responsive activator of p300) is directly targeted by the DNA damage signalling pathway where phosphorylation by ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) kinase facilitates nuclear accumulation. Here, we show that Strap regulation reflects the coordinated interplay between different DNA damage-activated protein kinases, ATM and Chk2 (Checkpoint kinase 2), where phosphorylation by each kinase provides a distinct functional consequence on the activity of Strap. ATM phosphorylation prompts nuclear accumulation, which we show occurs by impeding nuclear export, whereas Chk2 phosphorylation augments protein stability once Strap has attained a nuclear location. These results highlight the various functional roles undertaken by the DNA damage signalling kinases in Strap control and, more generally, shed light on the pathways that contribute to the regulation of the p53 response.
Subject(s)
Cell Cycle Proteins/metabolism , DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism , Neoplasm Proteins/metabolism , Protein Serine-Threonine Kinases/metabolism , Tumor Suppressor Protein p53/metabolism , Tumor Suppressor Proteins/metabolism , Active Transport, Cell Nucleus , Amino Acid Sequence , Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated Proteins , Cell Line , Cell Nucleus/metabolism , Checkpoint Kinase 2 , Humans , Molecular Sequence Data , Neoplasm Proteins/chemistry , Phosphorylation , Protein Stability , RNA-Binding ProteinsABSTRACT
Here, we report that the two recently identified E2F subunits, E2F7 and E2F8, are induced in cells treated with DNA-damaging agents where they have an important role in dictating the outcome of the DNA-damage response. The DNA-damage-dependent induction coincides with the binding of E2F7 and E2F8 to the promoters of certain E2F-responsive genes, most notably that of the E2F1 gene, in which E2F7 and E2F8 coexist in a DNA-binding complex. As a consequence, E2F7 and E2F8 repress E2F target genes, such as E2F1, and reducing the level of each subunit results in an increase in E2F1 expression and activity. Importantly, depletion of either E2F7 or E2F8 prevents the cell-cycle effects that occur in response to DNA damage. Thus, E2F7 and E2F8 act upstream of E2F1, and influence the ability of cells to undergo a DNA-damage response. E2F7 and E2F8, therefore, underpin the DNA-damage response.
