Implicit racism, colour blindness, and narrow definitions of discrimination: Why some White people prefer 'All Lives Matter' to 'Black Lives Matter'.

The Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement has been called the 'civil rights issue of our time' (Holt & Sweitzer, 2020, Self and Identity, 19(, p. 16) but the All Lives Matter (ALM) movement swiftly emerged as an oppositional response to BLM. Prior research has investigated some predictors of support for ALM over BLM, but these predictors have thus far not included levels of racial bias or potentially relevant constructions of racism. This pre-registered, cross-sectional study (N = 287) tested the degree to which White participants' support for ALM could be predicted using measures of racism (implicit and explicit) and ideological stances around the construction of 'racism' (that discourage the recognition of contemporary inequalities and discrimination). Using multiple regression analyses, we found that implicit racism, colour-blind ideology, and narrow definitional boundaries of discrimination positively predicted support for ALM over BLM. Explicit racism, collective narcissism, and right-wing political orientation did not predict ALM support, nor did any (2-way) interaction of these predictors. Implications for our understanding of the All Lives Matter movement are discussed.

Effects of Promotion and Compunction Interventions on Real Intergroup Interactions: Promotion Helps but High Compunction Hurts.

HIGHLIGHTS  We show the promotion intervention has positive effects during intergroup contact, but that high levels of compunction can have negative effects. Intergroup contact is probably the longest standing and most comprehensively researched intervention to reduce discrimination. It is also part of ordinary social experience, and a key context in which discrimination is played out. In this paper, we explore two additional interventions which are also designed to reduce discrimination, but which have not yet been applied to real intergroup interactions. The promotion intervention encourages participants to relax and enjoy an interaction, while the compunction intervention motivates participants to avoid discrimination. Across two studies, we tested the separate effects of promotion (Study 1) and then compunction (Study 2) on participants' interactions with a confederate whom they believed to have a history of schizophrenia. In Study 1, participants received either a promotion intervention to "relax and have an enjoyable dialogue" or no intervention (control; n = 67). In Study 2, participants completed a Single-Category Implicit Attitude Test before being told that they were high in prejudice (high compunction condition) or low in prejudice (low compunction condition; n = 62). Results indicated that promotion was associated with broadly positive effects: participants reported more positive experience of the interaction (enjoyment and interest in a future interaction), and more positive evaluations of their contact partner (increased friendliness and reduced stereotyping). There were no effects on participants' reported intergroup anxiety. In contrast, high compunction had broadly negative effects: participants reported more negative experiences of the interaction and more negative evaluations of their contact partner (using the same dependent measures outlined above). In addition, participants in the high compunction condition reported increased intergroup anxiety and increased self-anxiety (anxiety around thinking or doing something that is prejudiced). Participants in the high compunction condition also reported reduced expectancies of self-efficacy (i.e., they were less confident that they would be able to make a good impression).

Measuring patient anxiety in primary care: Rasch analysis of the 6-item Spielberger State Anxiety Scale.

OBJECTIVES: The 6-item Spielberger State Anxiety Scale has been used as a replacement of the original version in many health-care studies. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the measurement properties of the shortened 6-item Spielberger State Anxiety Scale using Rasch analysis in general medical practice patients (N=297). METHODS: Participants (aged 16 years or above) were recruited on a consecutive basis from three general medical practices. Prior to their appointment, participants were asked to complete a 6-item Spielberger State Anxiety Scale. RESULTS: The results of the study showed that the scale is unidimentional, and each item measures a different level of patient anxiety. The rating scale operated well and item and person reliability was good. Furthermore, principal-components analysis of the residuals confirmed the scale measures a unitary concept. A scoring key was generated to allow conversion of raw scores to a continuous measurement. CONCLUSION: The 6-item Spielberger State Anxiety Scale is shorter than the original version and has good psychometric properties. This would suggest the scale is a valid alternative to the full version for use in primary health-care practice and research.

Predicting state anxiety in optometric practice.

PURPOSE: Patient anxiety has been shown to be detrimental to healthcare consultations and their outcomes. To date, little is known about the causes of patient anxiety in optometric practice. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to identify the predictors of state anxiety for patients attending optometric consultations. METHODS: Three hundred sixty six participants (127 male, 239 female; mean age, 54.5; SD +/- 18.0) took part in the study. Each participant completed a preconsultation questionnaire including established measures of "state" anxiety, "trait" anxiety, study specific outcome expectancies, and biographical data. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to identify which variables predict state anxiety. RESULTS: Multiple linear regression analysis showed that the heightened trait anxiety, expecting "bad news" and being a non-spectacle wearer are independent predictors of increased state anxiety. R was 0.33, i.e., the regression model explained 33% of the variance. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first time that the predictors of state anxiety in optometric practice have been identified. Optometrists should recognize that patients who are "anxious types," who may be expecting "bad news" and who do not wear spectacles may be more anxious.

Evaluating the association between anxiety and satisfaction.

PURPOSE: Low patient satisfaction is problematic within optometric practice. However, to date, it is not known how patient anxiety affects this patient variable. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine whether patients who report higher levels of preexamination anxiety have lower levels of satisfaction postconsultation. METHODS: Optometric patient anxiety and patient satisfaction were measured using self-report questionnaires. A total of 197 participants (82 males, 115 females; mean age 57.1 +/- 18.6) completed the Optometric Patient Anxiety Scale before their eye examination. The Rapport subscale (extracted from the Medical Interview Satisfaction Scale) was completed after the eye examination. RESULTS: Validity of the Optometric Patient Anxiety Scale and Rapport subscale for this population was confirmed with Rasch analysis and item estimates calculated. Linear regression identified a significant relationship between optometric anxiety and satisfaction (p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: This is the first time that a relationship between preconsultation patient anxiety and postconsultation satisfaction has been documented within optometric practice. This indicates that if patient optometric anxiety can be reduced, there may be an improvement in patient satisfaction.

Evaluating patient anxiety levels during contact lens fitting.

PURPOSE: Patient anxiety has been shown to be detrimental to many aspects of primary healthcare consultations. However, to date, the subject has received minimal attention within optometric practice. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate patient anxiety during a commonly conducted type of optometric examination, namely a contact lens fit. METHODS: Forty participants (15 male, 25 female; mean age 28.3 +/- 9.5) underwent a full contact lens fitting consultation. Skin conductance was recorded continuously to measure participant arousal; the physiological correlate of anxiety. A short form of the Speilberger state anxiety scale was also completed by participants before and after the contact lens fit. RESULTS: Skin conductance analysis identified arousal levels peak during history and symptoms, contact lens insertion and removal and practitioner advice. The Wilcoxen test identified a significant reduction in participant anxiety measured with the shortened Speilberger state anxiety scale after the consultation. CONCLUSIONS: Patient arousal levels fluctuate in a characteristic way throughout the contact lens fitting examination. Peak arousal levels occur during periods of 'communicative interaction' between the patient and the optometrist. Since anxiety is associated with poor attention, this suggests that optometrists should not assume that patients remember what they are told during the consultation. Furthermore, patient anxiety is significantly reduced after the examination, which may indicate that patient anxiety is moderated by experience.

Content development of the Optometric Patient Anxiety Scale.

PURPOSE: Patient anxiety has been shown to be detrimental to many aspects of healthcare outcomes. To date, there is no method of evaluating anxiety in optometric practice. Therefore, the purpose of this study was the content development of a questionnaire to measure optometric patient anxiety. Such a tool will have both clinical and research application; allowing the identification of anxious patients in practice and as a method to establish the success of anxiety reducing interventions. METHODS: Selection of initial items was based on patient interviews, literature review, and focus group feedback. The initial 30-item Optometric Patient Anxiety Scale was piloted on 148 patients in optometric practice. Rasch analysis was used to analyze response category operation and to facilitate item removal to ensure a valid and unidimensional scale. Test-retest reliability (test-retest time, 2 weeks) was measured on 59 young adults to test the stability of the measure with time. RESULTS: Rasch analysis identified disordering of category thresholds and underutilization of the end-response category. Therefore, categories were merged to a three response solution. Item reduction was principally driven by infit and outfit statistics. The items in the final 10-item scale all had good infit and outfit values (infit: 0.80-1.20, outfit: 0.7-1.3), good person separation (>2) and high person and item reliability coefficients, 0.84 and 0.88, respectively. Test-retest reliability also demonstrated good stability of the measure with time (intraclass correlation; ICC = 0.85). CONCLUSIONS: The Optometric Patient Anxiety Scale is the first questionnaire to measure patient anxiety specific to optometric practice. The scale was developed using Rasch analysis to ensure that all the items work together to form a valid unidimensional interval scale.

Acculturation and contact in Japanese students studying in the United Kingdom.

Acculturation theory has been the dominant model that investigators use in examining the effects of transmigration. This theory indicates the problematic effects of intercultural contact in terms of adjustment and stress. One criticism of this theory, however, is its lack of integration with the more generic contact literature. This literature suggests that intergroup contact can have positive effects on intergroup relations. The authors presented a longitudinal study of 35 Japanese nationals living in the United Kingdom over a period of 12 months. The present results suggested that both conventional acculturation variables (e.g., language ability and perceived cultural distance) and intergroup variables (e.g., in-group bias and intergroup anxiety) were associated with acculturative stress and psychosomatic illness over time. Higher intergroup anxiety was associated with increased acculturative stress, whereas higher in-group bias was associated with reduced psychosomatic illness. The present results indicated the possibility that these variables add an important dimension to the acculturation literature.

Evaluating anxiety in patients attending optometric practice.

Although anxiety is a well-established obstacle to the delivery of effective health care, there have been no attempts to measure it in the optometric consulting room. In this paper, we introduce physiological and psychological techniques that may be used to evaluate anxiety and arousal in the consulting room and present data from a small group of patients attending for a routine eye examination. Specifically, arousal was assessed before, during, and after the examination by measuring skin conductance in five patients. Anxiety was evaluated using the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Our data confirm the ability of these techniques to quantify arousal and anxiety in the optometric consulting room and reveal a previously unknown but important facet of the eye examination. We conclude that these techniques are suitable for use in further experimental work and may be used to identify factors capable of reducing anxiety in the optometric consulting room.