Genome-wide association analysis uncovers rice blast resistance alleles of Ptr and Pia.

A critical step to maximize the usefulness of genome-wide association studies (GWAS) in plant breeding is the identification and validation of candidate genes underlying genetic associations. This is of particular importance in disease resistance breeding where allelic variants of resistance genes often confer resistance to distinct populations, or races, of a pathogen. Here, we perform a genome-wide association analysis of rice blast resistance in 500 genetically diverse rice accessions. To facilitate candidate gene identification, we produce de-novo genome assemblies of ten rice accessions with various rice blast resistance associations. These genome assemblies facilitate the identification and functional validation of novel alleles of the rice blast resistance genes Ptr and Pia. We uncover an allelic series for the unusual Ptr rice blast resistance gene, and additional alleles of the Pia resistance genes RGA4 and RGA5. By linking these associations to three thousand rice genomes we provide a useful tool to inform future rice blast breeding efforts. Our work shows that GWAS in combination with whole-genome sequencing is a powerful tool for gene cloning and to facilitate selection of specific resistance alleles for plant breeding.

Multiplexed effector screening for recognition by endogenous resistance genes using positive defense reporters in wheat protoplasts.

Plant resistance (R) and pathogen avirulence (Avr) gene interactions play a vital role in pathogen resistance. Efficient molecular screening tools for crops lack far behind their model organism counterparts, yet they are essential to rapidly identify agriculturally important molecular interactions that trigger host resistance. Here, we have developed a novel wheat protoplast assay that enables efficient screening of Avr/R interactions at scale. Our assay allows access to the extensive gene pool of phenotypically described R genes because it does not require the overexpression of cloned R genes. It is suitable for multiplexed Avr screening, with interactions tested in pools of up to 50 Avr candidates. We identified Avr/R-induced defense genes to create a promoter-luciferase reporter. Then, we combined this with a dual-color ratiometric reporter system that normalizes read-outs accounting for experimental variability and Avr/R-induced cell death. Moreover, we introduced a self-replicative plasmid reducing the amount of plasmid used in the assay. Our assay increases the throughput of Avr candidate screening, accelerating the study of cellular defense signaling and resistance gene identification in wheat. We anticipate that our assay will significantly accelerate Avr identification for many wheat pathogens, leading to improved genome-guided pathogen surveillance and breeding of disease-resistant crops.

ZmGLK36 transcription factor bestows viral resistance in rice and wheat.

Maize rough dwarf disease (MRDD) threatens the sustainable production of major cereal crops. Recently, Xu et al. reported a new resistance gene, ZmGLK36, which promotes MRDD resistance in maize by increasing jasmonic acid (JA)-mediated defence. This discovery provides opportunities to develop resistance to rice black-streaked dwarf virus (RBSDV) in other cereal crops such as rice and wheat.

A prime example of precisely delivered DNA.

Incorporating large fragments of DNA into specific genome positions is an inefficient process even when using the most cutting-edge genome-editing tools. Sun et al. recently described the prime editing-mediated recombination of opportune targets (PrimeRoot) method, which precisely and efficiently integrates large fragments of DNA into plant genomes and has enormous potential in research and agriculture.

Precision genome editing of crops for improved disease resistance.

Genome editing (GE) technologies allow rapid trait manipulation in crop plants. Disease resistance is one of the best test cases for this technology because it is usually monogenic and under constant challenge by rapidly evolving pathogens. Classical methods suffer from severe bottlenecks in discovery of new resistance (R) genes and their incorporation into elite varieties, largely because they are identified in landraces and species with limited sexual compatibility, and may last only a few years before losing effectiveness. Most plant R genes encode receptors located externally on the plasma membrane (receptor proteins and receptor kinases) or internally as NOD-like receptors (NLR). Both have well defined molecular interactions with activating pathogen ligands which are virulence proteins known as effectors. As structural data for R-effector interactions accumulate, promising strategies for rational manipulation of binding specificities are emerging. This offers the potential to change elite varieties directly rather than through 10-20 years of crossing. Successful application of GE is already evident in mutation of susceptibility (S) genes required for infection. GE is in its infancy with only four modified organisms grown currently in the US. The Anglosphere and Japan seem more open to deployment of these technologies, with the European Union, Switzerland and New Zealand being notably more conservative. Consumers are not well informed on the differences between GE and classical genetic modification (GM). The possibility that minor GE changes will not be regulated as GM offers the hope that current bottlenecks to resistance breeding can be eased.

A rust-fungus Nudix hydrolase effector decaps mRNA in vitro and interferes with plant immune pathways.

To infect plants, pathogenic fungi secrete small proteins called effectors. Here, we describe the catalytic activity and potential virulence function of the Nudix hydrolase effector AvrM14 from the flax rust fungus (Melampsora lini). We completed extensive in vitro assays to characterise the enzymatic activity of the AvrM14 effector. Additionally, we used in planta transient expression of wild-type and catalytically dead AvrM14 versions followed by biochemical assays, phenotypic analysis and RNA sequencing to unravel how the catalytic activity of AvrM14 impacts plant immunity. AvrM14 is an extremely selective enzyme capable of removing the protective 5' cap from mRNA transcripts in vitro. Homodimerisation of AvrM14 promoted biologically relevant mRNA cap cleavage in vitro and this activity was conserved in related effectors from other Melampsora spp. In planta expression of wild-type AvrM14, but not the catalytically dead version, suppressed immune-related reactive oxygen species production, altered the abundance of some circadian-rhythm-associated mRNA transcripts and reduced the hypersensitive cell-death response triggered by the flax disease resistance protein M1. To date, the decapping of host mRNA as a virulence strategy has not been described beyond viruses. Our results indicate that some fungal pathogens produce Nudix hydrolase effectors with in vitro mRNA-decapping activity capable of interfering with plant immunity.

Guarding the central regulator of extracellular perception in plants - A job for two.

BAK1 is a central regulator of extracellular receptor proteins, essential in plant development and defense. In this issue of Cell Host & Microbe, dual reports (Schultze et al. and Yang et al.) describe how intracellular NLR immune receptors guard BAK1, with implications for extracellular perception and immune receptor engineering.

Molecular plant immunity against biotrophic, hemibiotrophic, and necrotrophic fungi.

Pathogenic fungi use diverse infection strategies to obtain nutrients from plants. Biotrophic fungi feed only on living plant tissue, whereas necrotrophic fungi kill host cells to extract nutrients. To prevent disease, plants need to distinguish between pathogens with different life cycles, as a successful defense against a biotroph, which often involves programmed cell-death around the site of infection, is not an appropriate response to some necrotrophs. Plants utilize a vast collection of extracellular and intracellular receptors to detect the signatures of pathogen attack. In turn, pathogens are under strong selection to mask or avoid certain receptor responses while enhancing or manipulating other receptor responses to promote virulence. In this review, we focus on the plant receptors involved in resistance responses to fungal pathogens and highlight, with examples, how the infection strategy of fungal pathogens can determine if recognition responses are effective at preventing disease.

Plant pathology: Precision genome engineering keeps wheat disease at bay.

Mutating a disease susceptibility gene in barley is a favoured trick of plant breeders to confer resistance to powdery mildew disease. New work shows how the same feat can be performed in wheat while mellowing the impact of unwanted side effects.

Alleles of a wall-associated kinase gene account for three of the major northern corn leaf blight resistance loci in maize.

Northern corn leaf blight, caused by the fungal pathogen Setosphaeria turcica (anamorph Exserohilum turcicum), is one of the most devastating foliar diseases of maize (Zea mays). Four genes Ht1, Ht2, Ht3 and Htn1 represent the major sources of genetic resistance against the hemibiotrophic fungus S. turcica. Differential maize lines containing these genes also form the basis to classify S. turcica races. Here, we show that Ht2 and Ht3 are identical and allelic to the previously cloned Htn1 gene. Using a map-based cloning approach and Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes (TILLING), we demonstrate that Ht2/Ht3 is an allele of the wall-associated receptor-like kinase gene ZmWAK-RLK1. The ZmWAK-RLK1 variants encoded by Htn1 and Ht2/Ht3 differ by multiple amino acid polymorphisms that particularly affect the putative extracellular domain. A diversity analysis in maize revealed the presence of dozens of ZmWAK-RLK1 alleles. Ht2, Ht3 and Htn1 have been described over decades as independent resistance loci with different race spectra and resistance responses. Our work demonstrates that these three genes are allelic, which has major implications for northern corn leaf blight resistance breeding and nomenclature of S. turcica pathotypes. We hypothesize that genetic background effects have confounded the classical description of these disease resistance genes in the past.

APETALA 2-like genes AP2L2 and Q specify lemma identity and axillary floral meristem development in wheat.

The spikelet is the basic unit of the grass inflorescence. In tetraploid (Triticum turgidum) and hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum), the spikelet is a short indeterminate branch with two proximal sterile bracts (glumes) followed by a variable number of florets, each including a bract (lemma) with an axillary flower. Varying levels of miR172 and/or its target gene Q (AP2L5) result in gradual transitions of glumes to lemmas, and vice versa. Here, we show that AP2L5 and its related paralog AP2L2 play critical and redundant roles in the specification of axillary floral meristems and lemma identity. AP2L2, also targeted by miR172, displayed similar expression profiles to AP2L5 during spikelet development. Loss-of-function mutants in both homeologs of AP2L2 (henceforth ap2l2) developed normal spikelets, but ap2l2 ap2l5 double mutants generated spikelets with multiple empty bracts before transitioning to florets. The coordinated nature of these changes suggest an early role of these genes in floret development. Moreover, the flowers of ap2l2 ap2l5 mutants showed organ defects in paleas and lodicules, including the homeotic conversion of lodicules into carpels. Mutations in the miR172 target site of AP2L2 were associated with reduced plant height, more compact spikes, promotion of lemma-like characters in glumes and smaller lodicules. Taken together, our results show that the balance in the expression of miR172 and AP2-like genes is crucial for the correct development of spikelets and florets, and that this balance has been altered during the process of wheat and barley (Hordeum vulgare) domestication. The manipulation of this regulatory module provides an opportunity to modify spikelet architecture and improve grain yield.

TEOSINTE BRANCHED1 Regulates Inflorescence Architecture and Development in Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum).

The flowers of major cereals are arranged on reproductive branches known as spikelets, which group together to form an inflorescence. Diversity for inflorescence architecture has been exploited during domestication to increase crop yields, and genetic variation for this trait has potential to further boost grain production. Multiple genes that regulate inflorescence architecture have been identified by studying alleles that modify gene activity or dosage; however, little is known in wheat. Here, we show TEOSINTE BRANCHED1 (TB1) regulates inflorescence architecture in bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) by investigating lines that display a form of inflorescence branching known as "paired spikelets." We show that TB1 interacts with FLOWERING LOCUS T1 and that increased dosage of TB1 alters inflorescence architecture and growth rate in a process that includes reduced expression of meristem identity genes, with allelic diversity for TB1 found to associate genetically with paired spikelet development in modern cultivars. We propose TB1 coordinates formation of axillary spikelets during the vegetative to floral transition and that alleles known to modify dosage or function of TB1 could help increase wheat yields.

New alleles of the wheat domestication gene Q reveal multiple roles in growth and reproductive development.

The advantages of free threshing in wheat led to the selection of the domesticated Q allele, which is now present in almost all modern wheat varieties. Q and the pre-domestication allele, q, encode an AP2 transcription factor, with the domesticated allele conferring a free-threshing character and a subcompact (i.e. partially compact) inflorescence (spike). We demonstrate that mutations in the miR172 binding site of the Q gene are sufficient to increase transcript levels via a reduction in miRNA-dependent degradation, consistent with the conclusion that a single nucleotide polymorphism in the miRNA binding site of Q relative to q was essential in defining the modern Q allele. We describe novel gain- and loss-of-function alleles of Q and use these to define new roles for this gene in spike development. Q is required for the suppression of 'sham ramification', and increased Q expression can lead to the formation of ectopic florets and spikelets (specialized inflorescence branches that bear florets and grains), resulting in a deviation from the canonical spike and spikelet structures of domesticated wheat.

Ppd-1 is a key regulator of inflorescence architecture and paired spikelet development in wheat.

The domestication of cereal crops such as wheat, maize, rice and barley has included the modification of inflorescence architecture to improve grain yield and ease harvesting(1). Yield increases have often been achieved through modifying the number and arrangement of spikelets, which are specialized reproductive branches that form part of the inflorescence. Multiple genes that control spikelet development have been identified in maize, rice and barley(2-5). However, little is known about the genetic underpinnings of this process in wheat. Here, we describe a modified spikelet arrangement in wheat, termed paired spikelets. Combining comprehensive QTL and mutant analyses, we show that Photoperiod-1 (Ppd-1), a pseudo-response regulator gene that controls photoperiod-dependent floral induction, has a major inhibitory effect on paired spikelet formation by regulating the expression of FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT)(6,7). These findings show that modulated expression of the two important flowering genes, Ppd-1 and FT, can be used to form a wheat inflorescence with a more elaborate arrangement and increased number of grain producing spikelets.

Does Irish-dance training influence lower-limb asymmetry?

Irish-dance is a dance form where asymmetry is required. This study investigated the influence of Irish-dance training on four lower-limb asymmetries by comparing 100 Irish-dancers and 100 non-dancers. All four asymmetries showed significant differences between the dancers and the non-dancers: the rigidity of the dance training influencing those asymmetries.

A survey of sidedness in Northern Irish schoolchildren: the interaction of sex, age, and task.

The study examined lateral preference in use of hands, feet, eyes, and ears in a group of nearly 5000 schoolchildren in Northern Ireland. Performance tests were carried out by student teachers during their school-based work in 2002 and data were submitted on-line. Six tasks were used-writing, throwing a ball, kicking a ball, hopping, listening to quiet sounds, and looking through a cardboard tube. There was right bias in every task but the extent of it differed between tasks. Males were generally less right biased than females, and younger children less than older ones; for hearing, the changes with age were markedly different in the two sexes, with females showing a strong increase in right bias but males showing none. These observational results do little to illuminate the reasons for the patterns observed.

Kissing laterality and handedness.

Kissing behaviour was observed between kissing couples: about 80% turned their heads to the right to kiss. To remove the influence of one kissing partner upon the other, kissing behaviour was also observed between participants and a symmetrical doll's face: about 77% turned their heads to the right to kiss. There was no significant difference in handedness between right- and left-kissers: both groups were predominantly right-kissers. It is thought that motor bias rather than emotive bias influences kissing behaviour.