Determination of mechanical and electronic shifts for pinhole SPECT using a single point source.

The effects of uncompensated electronic and mechanical shifts may compromise the resolution of pinhole single photon emission computed tomography. The resolution degradation due to uncompensated shifts is estimated through simulated data. A method for determining the transverse mechanical and axial electronic shifts is described and evaluated. This method assumes that the tilt of the detector and the radius of rotation (ROR) are previously determined using another method. When this assumption is made, it is possible to determine the rest of the calibration parameters using a single point source. A method that determines the electronic and mechanical shifts as well as the tilt has been previously described; this method requires three point sources. It may be reasonable in most circumstances to calibrate tilt much less frequently than the mechanical shifts since the tilt is a property of the scanner whereas the mechanical shift may change every time the collimator is replaced. An alternative method for determining the ROR may also be used. Lastly, we take the view that the transverse electronic shift and the focal length change slowly and find these parameters independently.

Analytic determination of the pinhole collimator's point-spread function and RMS resolution with penetration.

Pinhole collimators are widely used to image small organs and animals. The pinhole response function (PRF) of knife-edge pinhole collimators has been estimated previously using geometric constructions without considering penetration and using "roll-off" models that employ an exponential model for the flux. An analytic expression for the PRF on the imaging plane that includes the effect of aperture penetration is derived in this paper by calculating the flux for photons passing through the aperture and those passing through the attenuating material. The PRF is then used to approximate the angular-dependent root-mean-square resolution in the directions parallel and perpendicular to the tilt of the point source. The corresponding aspect ratio is then obtained. The formulas are then compared with experimental data.

Quantitative pulmonary single photon emission computed tomography for radiotherapy applications.

Pulmonary imaging using single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) is the focus of current radiotherapy research, including dose-response analysis and three-dimensional (3D) radiation treatment planning. Improvement in the quantitative capability of SPECT may help establish its potential role in this application as well as others requiring accurate knowledge of pulmonary blood flow. The purposes of this study were to quantitatively evaluate SPECT filtered backprojection (FBP) and ordered subset-expectation maximization (OS-EM) reconstruction implementations for measuring absolute activity concentration in lung phantom experiments, and to incorporate quantitative SPECT techniques in 3D-RTP for lung cancer. Quantitative FBP (nonuniform iterative Chang attenuation compensation, scatter correction, and 3D postreconstruction Metz filtering) and OS-EM implementations were compared with a "clinical" implementation of FBP (uniform multiplicative Chang attenuation compensation and post-reconstruction von Hann filtering), for their ability to improve quantification of inactive and active spherical defects in the lungs of an anthropomorphic torso phantom. Activity concentration estimates were found to depend on many factors, such as region of interest size, scatter subtraction constant (k), postreconstruction deconvolution filtering and, in the case of OS-EM, total number of iterations. In general, reconstruction implementations incorporating compensation for nonuniform attenuation and scatter provided reduced bias relative to the clinical implementation. Potential applications to lung radiotherapy, including dose-functional histograms and treatment planning are also discussed. SPECT has the potential to provide accurate estimates of lung activity distributions that, together with improved image quality, may be useful for the study and prediction of therapeutic response.

Transmission imaging for nonuniform attenuation correction using a three-headed SPECT camera.

UNLABELLED: Our objective was to build and test a new system for transmission CT (TCT) imaging on a three-headed SPECT camera. The TCT images are intended for use in nonuniform attenuation correction of cardiac SPECT data. METHODS: The system consists of a transmission line source mounted to the camera gantry at the focal line of a long focal length, asymmetric fanbeam collimator. The focal line is 114 cm from the collimator surface and shifted 20 cm from the detector midline. This asymmetric fanbeam geometry is used to reduce truncation artifacts in the reconstructed TCT image. The line source fixture accommodates a 25-cm long source and contains removable, variable thickness attenuator plates (copper or lead) to modulate the photon flux density and a slat collimator to collimate the TCT source beam in the axial direction. For the TCT reconstruction, an iterative maximum likelihood-expectation maximization algorithm is used that models the asymmetric fanbeam geometry. Our initial studies with this system used a 1850 MBq (50 mCi) 123mTe line source. The evaluation included TCT scans of a resolution phantom, an anthropomorphic thorax phantom and a human subject. For the thorax phantom and human subject, short (2-min) and long (14-min) scans were performed. The SPECT imaging performance of the fanbeam collimator was also characterized. RESULTS: For both phantom and human data, high quality TCT reconstructions were obtained with linear attenuation coefficients closely matching narrow beam values. In the images of the resolution phantom, the smallest rods (4.8-mm diam) were resolved. The long scan images of the thorax phantom and human subject demonstrated the high resolution nature of the system and contained no evidence of truncation artifacts. With smoothing to control noise, the short scan images generally retained the attenuation features of the lung and of soft tissue and may provide a practical approach for clinical application. The fanbeam collimator demonstrated high resolution SPECT performance. CONCLUSION: These results suggest this system may provide an effective and practical approach to TCT imaging for nonuniform attenuation correction on a three-headed SPECT camera.

Effect of registration errors between transmission and emission scans on a SPECT system using sequential scanning.

UNLABELLED: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of patient motion on nonuniform attenuation correction of cardiac SPECT when the transmission and emission scans were performed sequentially. By using a sequential protocol rather than doing the scans simultaneously, contamination from the emission scan into the transmission scan could be eliminated, but registration of the two scans become a concern. METHODS: Transmission and emission scans were acquired using both an anthropomorphic thorax phantom containing a cardiac insert and a human volunteer. The types of motion considered were transverse shifts, axial shifts and rotations that occur in the time period between the transmission and emission scan. For this study, the various types of motion were simulated in the data. Both the transmission and emission data were reconstructed using filtered backprojection. A single-iteration Chang algorithm, modified for nonuniform attenuation correction, was used to further process the emission data. To evaluate the effects of motion errors, circumferential profiles, all normalized to the same scale, were generated for each case. The cardiac images reconstructed using registered data were considered references. Error profiles were generated by subtracting misaligned images from the reference and then normalizing the difference by the reference. For comparison purposes, an error profile was generated for the case in which no attenuation correction was performed. RESULTS: It was found that, for transverse and axial shifts of 2.9 cm, the normalized myocardial SPECT activity was decreased in certain regions of the heart by 20%-35%. For a 12 degrees rotational shift, the error was on the order of 10%-20%, compared to a normalized variation of 20%-25% in the image with no attenuation correction. CONCLUSION: The results indicate that registration errors of 2-3 cm can seriously affect image quality in both the phantom and human images.

Breast tumour imaging using incomplete circular orbit pinhole SPET: a phantom study.

Improvements in 99Tcm-sestamibi breast lesion visualization using single photon emission tomography (SPET) may help define the clinical role of this technique alongside X-ray mammography in the diagnosis and management of breast cancer. Pinhole SPET offers the advantages of high resolution and sensitivity when compared to conventional parallel-beam collimation for sources located near the pinhole aperture. In this work, the potential of incomplete (180 degrees) circular orbit (ICO) SPET with pinhole collimation is investigated as a means to visualize small (6.4 and 9.6 mm diameter) spherical simulated tumours, at clinical count densities and tumour-to-background ratios, in a breast phantom. ICO pinhole SPET is compared to complete circular orbit (CCO) pinhole SPET for reference, and planar breast imaging (scintimammography) using parallel-beam and pinhole collimators. A prototype box-shaped pinhole collimator with a 4 mm diameter circular aperture was used to acquire projections of an 890 ml breast phantom both in isolation and mounted on a cylinder filled with a mixture of 99Tcm-pertechnetate and water. A heart phantom containing 99Tcm activity in the myocardium was placed in the cylinder. Simulated tumours containing 99Tcm were placed in the breast phantom and scanned at clinically relevant count densities and scan times with tumour-to-normal tissue concentration ratios of 5.0:1 (9.6 mm sphere) and 7.7:1 (6.4 mm sphere). Phantom data were reconstructed using pinhole filtered backprojection (FBP) and maximum likelihood-expectation maximization (ML-EM). The tumours were not visualized with scintimammography, in which lesion contrast and signal-to-noise were estimated from region of interest analysis to be < 2% and 0.01, respectively. Average (over lesion size and scan time) contrast and signal-to-noise in the ICO (CCO) SPET images were 33% and 1.72 (34% and 1.3), respectively. These values indicate that ICO pinhole SPET has the potential to improve visualization of small (< 10 mm) breast tumours when compared with scintimammography, which may be beneficial for the early classification of cancers of the breast.

Pixel driven implementation of filtered backprojection for reconstruction of fan beam SPECT data using a position dependent effective projection bin length.

Filtered backprojection is commonly implemented as a pixel driven algorithm in which the density is reconstructed on an array of grid points that are usually associated with the centres of square image pixels. In fan beam geometry, this conventional pixel driven approach using two-bin linear interpolation leads to an inefficient use of the projection data due to magnification at the projection line. For typical count limited SPECT data, this results in increased reconstructed image noise. We propose an alternative type of pixel driven algorithm that makes efficient use of projection data by averaging over all bins within a position dependent "effective' projection bin interval. The effective bin interval is equivalent to the image pixel length magnified on the projection line. This heuristic method leads to more complete use of the projection data and results in reconstructed images with superior noise properties compared with the conventional method while presenting similar spatial resolution characteristics.

Half-cone beam collimation for triple-camera SPECT systems.

UNLABELLED: Cone-beam collimators provide increased sensitivity at similar resolution compared to other collimators. The use of cone-beam collimators for brain imaging with triple-camera SPECT systems, however, results in truncation of the base of the brain because of clearance of the shoulders. A half-cone beam collimator does not have the problem of truncation. The objective of this study was to compare the performance characteristics of half-cone beam with parallel-beam and fan-beam collimators with similar resolution characteristics for SPECT imaging of the brain. METHODS: A half-cone beam collimator with the focal point located towards the base of the brain was built for a triple-camera SPECT system. Spatial resolutions and sensitivities of three collimators were measured. RESULTS: When 10-cm from the collimator surface, the planar spatial resolutions FWHM in mm (point source sensitivities in cps-MBq) for half-cone beam, fan-beam and parallel-beam collimators were 5.2 (85.6), 5.1 (55.6) and 5.9 (39.7), respectively. Image quality was evaluated using a three-dimensional Hoffman brain phantom and patient data. The deeper gray matter were more clearly visualized in the half-cone beam scans. CONCLUSION: Half-cone beam collimation provides higher sensitivity and offers the potential for improved brain imaging compared with parallel-beam and fan-beam collimation when used with a triple-camera SPECT system.

Evaluation of SPECT quantification of radiopharmaceutical distribution in canine myocardium.

UNLABELLED: This study evaluates the quantitative accuracy of SPECT for in vivo distributions of 99mTc radiopharmaceuticals using fanbeam (FB) and parallel-beam (PB) collimators and compares uniform and nonuniform attenuation correction methods in terms of quantitative accuracy. METHODS: SPECT quantification of canine myocardial radioactivity was performed followed by well counter measurements of extracted myocardial tissue samples. Transmission scans using a line source and an FB collimator were performed to generate nonuniform attenuation maps of the canine thorax. Emission scans with two energy windows were acquired. Images were reconstructed using a filtered backprojection algorithm, with a dual-window scatter subtraction combined with either no attenuation compensation or single iteration Chang attenuation compensation based on an uniform attenuation map (mu = 0.152 cm-1) or the nonuniform transmission map. RESULTS: The measured mean counts from the SPECT images were converted to radionuclide concentrations (MBq/g) using a standard source calibration and were compared with those obtained using the well counter. CONCLUSION: The experimental results demonstrate that, compared with well counter values, the in vivo distributions of 99mTc were most accurately determined in FB and PB SPECT reconstructions with nonuniform attenuation compensation, under-estimated without attenuation compensation and overestimated with uniform attenuation compensation.

Quantitation of 211At in small volumes for evaluation of targeted radiotherapy in animal models.

We have evaluated SPECT and two planar imaging methods, geometric mean (GM) and buildup factor (BF), for their potential to quantitate in vivo 211At distributions in rat spinal subarachnoid spaces using phantom studies. The use of medium-energy collimators and the small diameter (3 mm) of the subarachnoid space complicate quantitation. Net activities from distributions in various backgrounds were obtained using a large region of interest with background subtraction. Results showed quantitation accuracy within 10% for SPECT and BF in low backgrounds increasing to 25% at higher background levels while GM errors ranged from 20 to 45%. We have also obtained images of [211At]astatide distributions, administered intrathecally, in rats.

Volume and activity quantitation with iodine-123 SPECT.

UNLABELLED: The goals of this study were to investigate the effect of septal penetration on 123I SPECT activity quantitation using low-energy, high-resolution collimators, and to evaluate a semi-automatic method for measuring volume and activity of 123I distribution with SPECT. METHODS: Data were acquired from experimental phantoms containing spheres filled with a high-purity 123I solution. The penetration study compared the reconstructed activity of a 3.4-cm diameter sphere with and without the presence of surrounding activity. In the study of volume and activity quantitation, three different size spheres (diameters of 1.8 cm, 2.8 cm and 3.4 cm) were imaged in three different sphere-to-background (S:B) 123I concentration ratios (2.5, 5 and 10) with low-energy collimators. The filtered backprojection reconstruction method was used with compensation for scatter, attenuation and detector response. Volume and activity measurements were obtained from the SPECT image using a semiautomatic gradient technique which estimates the location of the sphere/boundary in three dimensions. RESULTS: With the low-energy collimator, there was only a small (< 2%) increase in the measured activity of the sphere when surrounding activity was present. The measured volume for the two largest spheres was within 5% of the true volume for all S:B ratios. The activity measurement of these spheres was consistently underestimated by 20%-25% but suggested that the accuracy could be improved with calibration. For the smallest sphere, the volume was grossly overestimated and only at the 10 S:B ratio was the activity measured reasonably accurately (< 20%). CONCLUSIONS: The low-energy collimators used in this study are suitable for quantitative 123I SPECT. Accurate SPECT volume and activity quantitation of 123I distribution can be achieved by semiautomatic means at clinical count densities for objects as small as 2.8 cm in diameter and reasonable activity quantitation is possible for smaller objects with an S:B ratio of at least 10.

A 3D model of non-uniform attenuation and detector response for efficient iterative reconstruction in SPECT.

A 3D physical model for iterative reconstruction in SPECT has been developed and applied to experimental data. The model incorporates non-uniform attenuation using reconstructed transmission CT data and distance-dependent detector response based on response function measurements over a range of distances from the detector. The 3D model has been implemented in a computationally efficient manner with practical memory requirements. The features of the model that provide efficiency are described including a new region-dependent reconstruction (RDR) technique. With RDR, filtered backprojection is used to reconstruct areas of the image of minimal clinical importance, and the result is used to supplement the iterative reconstruction of the clinically important areas of the image. The 3D model was incorporated into the maximum likelihood-expectation maximization (ML-EM) reconstruction algorithm and tested in three phantom studies--a point source, a uniform cylinder, and an anthropomorphic thorax--and a patient 9Tc(m) sestamibi study. Reconstructed images with the 3D method exhibited excellent noise and resolution characteristics. With the sestamibi data, the RDR technique produced essentially the conventional ML-EM estimate in the cardiac region with substantial time savings.

Implementation of an accelerated iterative algorithm for cone-beam SPECT.

In this paper we describe the implementation of an accelerated iterative reconstruction algorithm (AIRA) for cone-beam (CB) projections using a single circular orbit in single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT). This algorithm is a modified maximum-likelihood-expectation-maximization (ML-EM) algorithm and several approaches have been used to accelerate the reconstruction process. These approaches include: (i) the use of ordered subsets; (ii) the use of active areas and volumes; and (iii) the storing in memory of the transition vector for a given ray (during the forward projection step). This algorithm, which compensates for collimator geometric sensitivity variation as a function of position and makes uniform attenuation corrections has been evaluated using experimentally acquired phantom data. The results demonstrate a two-orders-of-magnitude decrease of the computational time of this algorithm over the conventional ML-EM algorithm with similar convergence properties.

A filtered backprojection algorithm for pinhole SPECT with a displaced centre of rotation.

In this paper the importance of correcting a small centre-of-rotation displacement (approximately 1 mm) in single-photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT) using high-resolution pinhole collimation is demonstrated. A filtered backprojection (FBP) algorithm is derived for a pinhole geometry that has a displaced centre-of-rotation. The centre-of-rotation displacement, or mechanical shift (MS), is the displacement of the midplane of the pinhole collimator from the rotation centre. It is characterized by two orthogonal components: the shift eta of the midplane of the pinhole collimator along the direction of the axis of rotation, and the distance tau between the midline of the pinhole collimator and the axis of rotation. This algorithm is fast and corrects the centre-of-rotation displacement directly by incorporating this displacement into the algorithm. This new algorithm is evaluated using both a three-line source and a micro-SPECT cold rod phantom. The results demonstrate that the pinhole FBP with mechanical shift correction is able to correct the 'doughnut'-type artifacts caused by the mechanical shift and restore the expected system resolution.

A cone beam SPECT reconstruction algorithm with a displaced center of rotation.

A filtered backprojection (FBP) algorithm is derived based on Feldkamp's FBP algorithm for a cone beam geometry that has a displaced center of rotation. In cone beam single photon emission computed tomography (CB-SPECT) the center of rotation displacement can degrade the reconstructed images. The center of rotation displacement of interest is mechanical shift, which is the displacement of the midplane of the cone beam collimator off the rotation center. Mechanical shift is characterized by two orthogonal components: the shift of the midplane of the cone beam collimator along the direction of the axis of rotation, and the distance between the midline of the cone beam collimator and the axis of rotation. This new algorithm corrects mechanical shift directly by incorporating mechanical shift into the algorithm. This new algorithm is evaluated using both Monte Carlo simulated data and experimentally acquired data. The results demonstrate that this algorithm is able to correct for blurring and the "doughnut" type artifacts caused by system mechanical shift and improve the image resolution.

An evaluation of lesion detectability with cone-beam, fanbeam and parallel-beam collimation in SPECT by continuous ROC study.

UNLABELLED: To evaluate lesion detectability for clinical evaluation of cone-beam (CB), fanbeam (FB) and parallel-beam (PB) collimator sensitivity, experimentally acquired phantom data were used to assess the advantage of CB collimation over conventional collimation. METHODS: Lesion detectability with CB, FB and PB collimation in SPECT was compared using a three-dimensional brain phantom and continuous receiver operating characteristic (CROC) analysis. A simulated cold lesion was located near the posterior portion of the thalamus. High count density scans of this phantom were acquired with CB, FB and PB collimators with similar resolution. These projections were scaled to count levels which reflected the measured sensitivities of the three collimators. Computer-generated Poisson noise was added to the projections to produce uncorrelated data sets. Images were reconstructed using a filtered backprojection algorithm. All reconstructions used a Hann filter with multiplicative attenuation correction. Each of seven trained observers viewed 288 sets of images and indicated the certainty of perceiving a cold lesion at a specified location by a rating of 0-100. Each image set contained four adjacent slices centered on the lesion to minimize partial volume effects. The program LABROC4 was used to fit CROC curves to individual observers' ratings. A t-test for paired data was performed on the individual areas. RESULTS: The average areas (standard deviations) under CROC curves for CB, FB and PB were 0.89 (0.03), 0.83 (0.05) and 0.76 (0.04), respectively. The differences of the areas were statistically significant with all two-tailed p values < 0.02. CONCLUSION: These results demonstrate that cold lesions in the posterior portion of the thalamus are best detected by images obtained using CB followed by FB and PB collimation.

Cardiac phantom evaluation of simultaneously acquired dual-isotope rest thallium-201/stress technetium-99m SPECT images.

Simultaneously acquired dual-isotope 201Tl/99mTc SPECT studies were performed using cardiac and thoracic phantoms to evaluate the dual-isotope myocardial perfusion technique. Cardiac phantom images representing infarction, viable myocardium and various levels of ischemia were analyzed. Studies with and without attenuating media were performed, and myocardium-to-defect count ratios and defect sizes from dual-isotope SPECT images were compared to myocardium-to-defect count ratios and defect sizes from single-isotope (201Tl and 99mTc) SPECT images. Dual-isotope studies also were interpreted qualitatively. Studies with background activity simulating clinical conditions were performed and interpreted qualitatively. Myocardium-to-defect count ratios from both 99mTc and 201Tl were similar in single-isotope and dual-isotope SPECT images. Thallium-201 and 99mTc defect sizes were decreased slightly (mean +/- s.d., 1.0 +/- 1.7 cc for 201Tl and 0.7 +/- 1.0 cc for 99mTc) on dual studies when compared to single studies but were not statistically significant. Dual-isotope image simulations of normal, ischemic and infarcted and viable myocardium were correctly identified by experienced clinicians in 95% of the cases (21/22). Simultaneous dual-isotope 201Tl/99mTc SPECT imaging of cardiac phantoms produced images that had similar myocardium-to-defect count ratios to those produced using single-isotope techniques and were correctly evaluated on qualitative analysis. Changes in defect size related to dual-isotope imaging were minimal and not qualitatively important.

Fast transmission CT for determining attenuation maps using a collimated line source, rotatable air-copper-lead attenuators and fan-beam collimation.

We describe a technique using a line source and a rotatable air-copper-lead assembly to acquire gamma transmission computed tomographic (TCT) data for determining attenuation maps to compensate SPECT emission scans. The technique minimizes problems associated with discriminating 99mTc transmission and 201Tl emission photons and requires only a modest increase in total study time. A 99mTc line source and a stacked foil ("multislat") collimator are placed near the focal line of a fan-beam collimator (114 cm focal length) mounted on one detector of a triple-camera SPECT system. We acquired TCT data of plastic rod and anthropomorphic thorax phantoms to investigate the capability of the line source and rotatable air-copper-lead attenuators to determine attenuation maps. The data were acquired with and without 5.4 MBq (145 microCi) of 201Tl placed in the myocardial chamber of the thorax phantom. Phantoms also were scanned using a curved transmission slab source mounted to a parallel-hole collimator. Fan-beam TCT images have improved resolution compared with parallel-beam TCT images. Two patient scans also were performed to evaluate the clinical usefulness of fan-beam TCT. The rotatable air-copper-lead attenuator method eliminates contamination of emission data by transmission photons and reduces spill-over of emission data into the transmission energy window for some cases. Results show the feasibility of using fast, sequential or interlaced transmission scans of a line source within a rotatable air-copper-lead attenuator assembly to obtain accurate attenuation maps for SPECT attenuation compensation.

Determination of both mechanical and electronic shifts in cone beam SPECT.

The difference between the displacement of the centre of rotation (mechanical shift, MS) and the electronic centring misalignment (electronic shift, ES) in cone beam SPECT is evaluated. A method is proposed to determine both MS and ES using the centroid of a projected point source sampled over 360 degrees and the Marquardt non-linear fitting algorithm. Both shifts are characterized by two orthogonal components. This method is verified using Monte Carlo simulated point source data with different combinations of mechanical and electronic shifts. Both shifts can be determined correctly. We have also applied the proposed method to our cone beam SPECT system to determine both shifts as well as the focal length. The determined ES parameters are then used to correct the projections and the MS parameters are incorporated into a reconstruction algorithm. The point source images are reconstructed and the image resolutions with and without the shift corrections are measured. The experimental results demonstrate that the image resolution is improved after shift corrections. The experimental results also indicate that the shift parameters determined in the same experiment with the point source located at different places are consistent but change from time to time, suggesting that calibration of the system is needed on a periodic basis.

Direct cone beam SPECT reconstruction with camera tilt.

A filtered backprojection (FBP) algorithm is derived to perform cone beam (CB) single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) reconstruction with camera tilt using circular orbits. This algorithm reconstructs the tilted angle CB projection data directly by incorporating the tilt angle into it. When the tilt angle becomes zero, this algorithm reduces to that of Feldkamp. Experimentally acquired phantom studies using both a two-point source and the three-dimensional Hoffman brain phantom have been performed. The transaxial tilted cone beam brain images and profiles obtained using the new algorithm are compared with those without camera tilt. For those slices which have approximately the same distance from the detector in both tilt and non-tilt set-ups, the two transaxial reconstructions have similar profiles. The two-point source images reconstructed from this new algorithm and the tilted cone beam brain images are also compared with those reconstructed from the existing tilted cone beam algorithm which requires rebinning the projection data. These comparisons demonstrate that the new algorithm, compared with the existing tilted cone beam algorithm, can provide better image contrast and improved image resolution.