Species identification by experts and non-experts: comparing images from field guides.

Accurate species identification is fundamental when recording ecological data. However, the ability to correctly identify organisms visually is rarely questioned. We investigated how experts and non-experts compared in the identification of bumblebees, a group of insects of considerable conservation concern. Experts and non-experts were asked whether two concurrent bumblebee images depicted the same or two different species. Overall accuracy was below 60% and comparable for experts and non-experts. However, experts were more consistent in their answers when the same images were repeated, and more cautious in committing to a definitive answer. Our findings demonstrate the difficulty of correctly identifying bumblebees using images from field guides. Such error rates need to be accounted for when interpreting species data, whether or not they have been collected by experts. We suggest that investigation of how experts and non-experts make observations should be incorporated into study design, and could be used to improve training in species identification.

Dynamics and genetics of a disease-driven species decline to near extinction: lessons for conservation.

Amphibian chytridiomycosis has caused precipitous declines in hundreds of species worldwide. By tracking mountain chicken (Leptodactylus fallax) populations before, during and after the emergence of chytridiomycosis, we quantified the real-time species level impacts of this disease. We report a range-wide species decline amongst the fastest ever recorded, with a loss of over 85% of the population in fewer than 18 months on Dominica and near extinction on Montserrat. Genetic diversity declined in the wild, but emergency measures to establish a captive assurance population captured a representative sample of genetic diversity from Montserrat. If the Convention on Biological Diversity's targets are to be met, it is important to evaluate the reasons why they appear consistently unattainable. The emergence of chytridiomycosis in the mountain chicken was predictable, but the decline could not be prevented. There is an urgent need to build mitigation capacity where amphibians are at risk from chytridiomycosis.

Low gene flow but high genetic diversity in the threatened Mallorcan midwife toad Alytes muletensis.

We investigated fine-scale genetic structuring in the rare and vulnerable Mallorcan midwife toad Alytes muletensis using eight polymorphic microsatellite markers. The current range of this amphibian is restricted to some 19 sites of which six are derived from reintroductions, all located in the mountain ranges of Mallorca. We sampled tadpoles from 14 pools covering 10 natural sites and two reintroduction sites for microsatellite DNA analyses. Relatively high levels of genetic variation were found in most pools (H(E) = 0.38-0.71, allelic richness = 2.6-6.2). Only at one pool has the population recently gone through a bottleneck. Dispersal between pools in different torrents does not occur whereas downstream dispersal between pools within the same torrent does happen at low frequencies. This occasional exchange of individuals does not lead to neighbouring pools in the same torrent being panmictic. This can be concluded because all F(ST) values (0.12-0.53) differ significantly from zero and STRUCTURE analyses identified neighbouring pools as separate populations. Furthermore, assignment and migration tests showed little exchange between neighbouring pools. If upstream locations or complete torrents go extinct, they are unlikely to be recolonized naturally. For conservation purposes, reintroductions of tadpoles to sites where local extinctions have occurred may therefore be advisable.

Fluid restriction in anorexia nervosa: a neglected symptom or new phenomenon?

OBJECTIVE: The deliberate restriction of fluids to control weight is even more dangerous than food restriction since it results in several serious medical complications. However, there has been scant attention given to the anorexia nervosa patient's manipulation of fluids. It is our clinical impression that fluid restriction in this illness is more common than previously thought. METHOD: We summarize the demographic and clinical features of six cases of anorexia nervosa and one case of eating disorder not otherwise specified (ED-NOS) (subthreshold anorexia nervosa), where fluid restriction was a major behavioral problem. We then describe two of the anorexia nervosa cases in more detail. All were treated at a dieting disorders unit affiliated with the University of Sydney. Their preadmission history, psychological and physical status on admission, results of physical investigations, the beginning of the fluid restriction, fluid and food intake throughout treatment, and the resolution of the fluid restriction were assessed. RESULTS: Patterns emerged in the relationship between eating and drinking. In all cases, food restriction was severe prior to the onset of fluid restriction but, notably, fluid intake recommenced prior to food intake. The reasons given by patients for restricting fluid were that it contained calories and that it made them feel full. Most anorexic patients equate feeling full with "feeling fat." Furthermore, they feel fully in control when they restrict fluid as well as food and this produces a strong motivation to maintain the behavior. DISCUSSION: The cases illustrate the insidious nature and serious consequences of fluid restriction and the difficulties managing dieting-disordered patients who undertake it. Careful attention must be given to assessment and clinicians should be aware of fluid restriction as an important aspect of anorexic behavior.

Measuring self-esteem in dieting disordered patients: the validity of the Rosenberg and Coopersmith contrasted.

OBJECTIVE: In order to ascertain the most appropriate measure of self-esteem for dieting disordered patients, this study contrasted the construct and convergent validities of two widely used measures. In addition, dieting disordered subgroups were compared on levels of self-esteem. METHOD: One hundred and seventeen male and female patients diagnosed with anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or eating disorder not otherwise specified completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES), the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (SEI), and measures of dieting disorder pathology and depression. RESULTS: No significant differences among the three dieting disorder subgroups were found. In determining convergent validity, regression analyses indicated that the SES was a significant predictor of dieting disorder psychopathology whereas the SEI was not. Of the two self-esteem measures, only the SES showed evidence of convergent validity. DISCUSSION: The results suggest that the SES has sounder construct and convergent validity than the SEI. Hence, the SES may be more appropriate for use with dieting disordered populations.

New reference allelic ladders to improve allelic designation in a multiplex STR system.

This paper reports the composition of a new reference allelic ladder mixture for use with a multiplex DNA profiling system consisting of six short tandem repeat loci. The loci included in this mixture are HUMTH01, D21S11, D18S51, D8S1179, HUMVWAF31/A, HUMFIBRA/FGA and an amelogenin sex test. Sequence analysis of individual ladder alleles was carried out and allelic designations made in accordance with the recommendations of the International Society of Forensic Haemogenetics (1992; 1994). A series of rare alleles which increase the range of alleles previously reported were identified. By including some of the rare alleles into the ladder marker system, we have significantly improved the ability to identify new alleles in unknown samples.

Bulimia nervosa, restrained, and unrestrained eaters: a comparison of non-binge eating behavior.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated non-binge eating behavior in bulimia nervosa, restrained and unrestrained eaters. METHOD: Nine females with bulimia nervosa, 12 female restrained eaters, and 13 female unrestrained eaters were administered the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (EDI-2), the Body Shape Questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Revised Restraint Scale (RRS). All subjects were videotaped during a midday meal and their eating behavior was subsequently rated using the Eating Behaviour Rating Scale (EBRS). RESULTS: EBRS ratings were higher for bulimic than for unrestrained subjects. Restrained subjects' ratings did not differ from those of either bulimic or unrestrained subjects. EBRS scores were positively correlated with RRS and EDI-2 total scores. CONCLUSIONS: Bulimic subjects display aberrant eating behavior, and the extent to which subjects engage in maladaptive eating behavior is related to the degree of eating pathology. These results support the utility of the EBRS as a useful index of eating behaviors in clinical and nonclinical populations.

The use of guardianship legislation for anorexia nervosa: a report of 15 cases.

OBJECTIVE: This paper investigates compulsory treatment under guardianship legislation for 15 anorexia nervosa patients admitted to four eating disorders units in New South Wales (NSW), Australia, between 1991 and 1994. METHODS: A retrospective follow-up was conducted. This involved an analysis of sociodemographic, clinical, eating and weight history, and Guardianship Order details obtained from medical records. This small sample was compared to a larger sample of anorexia nervosa patients admitted voluntarily to a specialised eating disorder unit in NSW. Further follow-up included a structured interview using the Morgan-Russell Assessment Outcome Schedule at least 1 year after admission for compulsory treatment. RESULTS: For those treated involuntarily, a larger number came from metropolitan Sydney and a larger percentage were unemployed, were purgers and required specialist medical consultations. A significantly higher proportion came from higher socioeconomic groups, and the duration of stay in hospital while patients were under guardianship was significantly greater. A high degree of comorbidity was noted. There were similarities between those treated involuntarily and those treated voluntarily for the source of referral, marital status and Body Mass Index on admission and discharge. Only three patients accepted a follow-up interview using the Morgan-Russell Outcome Schedule. Two of them had made a good recovery. CONCLUSIONS: It was noted that the guardianship sample comprised a more severely III group than anorexic patients treated voluntarily. The nature of guardianship legislation compared to mental health law was discussed and advice offered to clinicians contemplating and implementing compulsory treatment.

Body figure perceptions and eating attitudes among Australian schoolchildren aged 8 to 12 years.

OBJECTIVE: How widespread is the desire for thinness among preadolescent Australian children and are there gender differences? METHOD: Two hundred forty-four children from Grades 3 to 6 completed the children's version of the Eating Attitudes Test (ChEAT), reported whether they had ever wanted to be thinner or tried to lose weight, and selected pictures ranging from thin to fat to depict their current and ideal body images. RESULTS: Fifty percent of girls and 33% of boys have wanted to be thinner, and 40% and 24%, respectively, have attempted to lose weight. Percentages of girls and boys scoring above the ChEAT screening threshold for anorexia risk were 14% and 8%, respectively. ChEAT scores, attitudes and behaviors, and current and ideal figure perceptions were significantly related to body mass index (BMI). DISCUSSION: Attitudes and behaviors were consistent with recent U.S. and Israeli findings that concerns about being overweight are prevalent among 8- to 12-year-olds. High ChEAT scores among Grade 3 children raised the question of whether very young children adequately understand this questionnaire.

Chronic fatigue syndrome and dieting disorders: diagnosis and management problems.

OBJECTIVE: This paper illustrates the importance of conducting an initial and ongoing psychiatric assessment of patients with chronic fatigue syndrome in order to diagnose dieting disorders. The diagnostic issues and management problems of three case vignettes, two with anorexia nervosa and one with bulimia nervosa, are described. METHOD: The treatment response of dieting disordered patients is generally prolonged after a previous diagnosis of chronic fatigue syndrome has been made and the patient and family favour a disease diagnosis. RESULTS: Several management problems arise and family members may also be reluctant to accept a dieting disorder diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Early detection of dieting disorders by adequate screening and assessment is necessary so that a significant reduction in morbidity may occur.

Children's perceptions of their current and ideal body sizes and body mass index.

244 Australian schoolchildren aged between 8 and 12 years indicated their current and ideal body sizes by means of Collins' pictorial figures. Children's height and weight were also measured. Body-mass indices were calculated from these data, and percentile ranks estimated according to international reference data. Consistent with Collins' findings, 39% of girls and 26% of boys wanted to be thinner than they perceived themselves to be; however, this desire was strongly related to actual body size so the percentages were very different for weight categories established on the basis of Body Mass Index. In the overweight quartile, 76% of girls and 56% of boys wanted to be thinner, whereas in the underweight quartile only 10% of girls and no boys wanted to be thinner. The response of overweight children may be sensible, but the desire of some underweight girls to be even thinner is of concern. Some recent literature suggests that underweight individuals tend to overestimate their body sizes. About a half of our underweight children slightly overestimated their body sizes but only one child overestimated grossly.

Effects of pH and aluminium on the growth and feeding behaviour of smooth and palmate newt larvae.

: The distribution of smooth and palmate newts (Triturus vulgaris and Triturus helveticus) may be related to water quality. This study compared the larval growth and feeding behaviour of both species under sublethal levels of aluminium and low pH. The growth of both species was inhibited to a similar degree under acidic conditions with aluminium toxicity dependent upon both low pH and developmental stage. The two species were differentially affected by low pH in terms of feeding behaviour. T. vulgaris larvae took significantly longer to snap at food under low pH than the apparently acid-tolerant T. helveticus. Aluminium had no significant effect on the feeding behaviour of either species.

The structure of depressive symptoms in the elderly.

In a structured sample of 100 male and 100 female minimally impaired patients, aged 60 years and over, females were more depressed. Varimax factor analysis demonstrated four factor groupings which have clinical relevance - Depression, Anxiety, Cognitive impairment, and Psychosomatic disorder; their relative importance is different in males and females. Analysis of variance of the scores of clusters generated by cluster analysis demonstrated four groups of subjects - normal, mildly depressed, moderately depressed with borderline dementia and disability, and severely depressed with moderate dementia and frank disability. In the mildly and moderately depressed, symptoms of anxiety predominated.

Depression, dementia and disability in the elderly.

A structured sample of mobile elderly patients in a rural community practice was assessed on validated rating scales for depression, dementia and disability. A total of 62% of the sample was abnormal on at least one variable. The overall prevalence of depression was 13%; the overall prevalence of dementia was either 10 or 18% depending on the criterion of Mental Test Score (MTS). Depression and dementia were related, depression being more common in females. In depressed and demented patients, MTS was age-related in those over 60 years; in depression alone, MTS was not age-related. Dementia was age-related, particularly over the age of 75. Disability increased with age and was more common in females. Disability was associated with both depression and dementia.

The treatment of bulimia nervosa.

We review treatment approaches to bulimia nervosa, with particular emphasis on methodology and research design. The following treatments are considered: behaviour therapy, cognitive behaviour therapy, pharmacological treatment, group therapy, psychoanalytic psychotherapy, self-help and support groups, hypnosis and miscellaneous (family therapy and nutritional approaches). Several directions for future research and methodological recommendations are suggested.

An evaluation and follow-up investigation of a behavioural group treatment programme for obesity.

This paper describes an evaluation and 2-year follow-up of a comprehensive behavioural group obesity programme. The sample was made up of three groups totalling 31 patients who were referred to the Weight Reduction Advice Service at Prince of Wales Hospital, Randwick. Patients were thoroughly screened prior to treatment and completed psychological questionnaires before and after treatment. The programme consisted of weekly, 1.5- to 2-hour sessions of formal treatment. An additional 2 sessions were held fortnightly. Treatment was conducted by a clinical psychologist, two dietitians and a physiotherapist. Outcome results for the end of treatment and at 2 years follow-up are presented. The implications of the results for the treatment of obesity are discussed.

Natural environmental cues and circadian rhythms of behaviour--a perspective.

Natural environmental cycles are often extremely difficult to reproduce under laboratory conditions. Laboratory light-dark cycles differ from natural light-dark cycles in terms of intensity and spectral distribution, whilst simulated temperature cycles may differ from natural temperature cycles in waveform. The expression of a free-running rhythm depends upon the 'level' of constant conditions provided. Environmental cues affect the period, phasing, amplitude and activity-rest ratios of circadian rhythms and, if inappropriate, may result in aberrant behaviour patterns which are unlike those observed in nature.

Normal erythrocyte sedimentation rate in the elderly.

Two hundred subjects aged 60-89 were selected for a study aimed at defining a reference range for the erythrocyte sedimentation rate in the elderly. The study extended a previous survey in subjects aged 20-65. The results confirmed that the sedimentation rate increases with age and that women have higher values than men but suggested that over half of elderly patients with disease would have rates within the previously defined "normal" range. It is therefore suggested that an erythrocyte sedimentation rate exceeding 19 mm in the first hour in elderly men and 22 mm in the first hour in elderly women warrants investigation.