A role for Apolipoprotein A-I in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis.

Apolipoprotein A1 (Apo A-I), the most abundant component of high-density lipoprotein (HDL), is an anti-inflammatory molecule, yet its potential role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) has not been fully investigated. In this study, Western blot analyses of human plasma showed differential Apo A-I expression in healthy controls compared to MS patients. Further, primary progressive MS patients had less plasma Apo A-I than other forms of MS. Using experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE) as a model for MS, Apo A-I deficient mice exhibited worse clinical disease and more neurodegeneration concurrent with increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines compared to wild-type animals. These data suggest that Apo A-I plays a role in the pathogenesis of EAE, a model for MS, creating the possibility for agents that increase Apo A-I levels as potential therapies for MS.

LC-MS/MS identification of the one-carbon cycle metabolites in human plasma.

The one-carbon cycle is composed of four major biologically important molecules: methionine (L-Met), S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), S-adenosylhomocysteine (SAH), and homocysteine (Hcy). In addition to these key metabolites, there are multiple enzymes, vitamins, and cofactors that play essential roles in the cascade of the biochemical reactions that convert one metabolite into another in the cycle. Simultaneous quantitative measurement of four major metabolites can be used to detect possible aberrations in this vital cycle. Abnormalities in the one-carbon cycle might lead to hyper- or hypomethylation, homocystinemia, liver dysfunction, and accumulation of white-matter hyperintensities in the human brain. Previously published methods describe evaluation of several components of the one-carbon cycle, but none to our knowledge demonstrated simultaneous measurement of all four key molecules (L-Met, SAM, SAH, and Hcy). We describe a novel analytical method suitable for simultaneous identification and quantification of L-Met, SAM, SAH, and Hcy with LC-MS/MS. Moreover, we tested this method to identify these metabolites in human plasma collected from patients with multiple sclerosis and healthy individuals. In a pilot feasibility study, our results indicate that patients with multiple sclerosis showed abnormalities in the one-carbon cycle.

Antibody transfection into neurons as a tool to study disease pathogenesis.

Antibodies provide the ability to gain novel insight into various events taking place in living systems. The ability to produce highly specific antibodies to target proteins has allowed for very precise biological questions to be addressed. Importantly, antibodies have been implicated in the pathogenesis of a number of human diseases including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA), paraneoplastic syndromes, multiple sclerosis (MS) and human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). How antibodies cause disease is an area of ongoing investigation, and data suggests that interactions between antibodies and various intracellular molecules results in inflammation, altered cellular messaging, and apoptosis. It has been shown that patients with MS and HAM/TSP produce autoantibodies to the intracellular RNA binding protein heterogeneous ribonuclear protein A1 (hnRNP A1). Recent data indicate that antibodies to both intra-neuronal and surface antigens are pathogenic. Thus, a procedure that allows for the study of intracellular antibody:protein interactions would lend great insight into disease pathogenesis. Genes are commonly transfected into primary cells and cell lines in culture, however transfection of antibodies into cells has been hindered by alteration of antibody structure or poor transfection efficiency. Other methods of transfection include antibody transfection based on cationic liposomes (consisting of DOTAP/DOPE) and polyethylenimines (PEI); both of which resulted in a ten-fold decrease in antibody transfection compared to controls. The method performed in our study is similar to cationic lipid-mediated methods and uses a lipid-based mechanism to form non-covalent complexes with the antibodies through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions. We utilized Ab-DeliverIN reagent, which is a lipid formulation capable of capturing antibodies through non-covalent electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions and delivering them inside cells. Thus chemical and genetic couplings are not necessary for delivery of functional antibodies into living cells. This method has enabled us to perform various antibody tracing and protein localization experiments, as well as the analyses of the molecular consequences of intracellular antibody:protein interactions. In this protocol, we will show how to transfect antibodies into neurons rapidly, reproducibly and with a high degree of transfection efficiency. As an example, we will use anti-hnRNP A1 and anti-IgG antibodies. For easy quantification of transfection efficiency we used anti-hnRNP A1 antibodies labelled with Atto-550-NHS and FITC-labeled IgG. Atto550 NHS is a new label with high molecular absorbtion and quantum yield. Excitation source and fluorescent filters for Atto550 are similar to Cy3 (Ex. 556 Em. 578). In addition, Atto550 has high photostability. FITC-labeled IgG were used as a control to show that this method is versatile and not dye dependent. This approach and the data that is generated will assist in understanding of the role that antibodies to intracellular target antigens might play in the pathogenesis of human diseases.

Pathogenic mechanisms of neurodegeneration based on the phenotypic expression of progressive forms of immune-mediated neurologic disease.

Considering there are no treatments for progressive forms of multiple sclerosis (MS), a comprehensive understanding of the role of neurodegeneration in the pathogenesis of MS should lead to novel therapeutic strategies to treat it. Many studies have implicated viral triggers as a cause of MS, yet no single virus has been exclusively shown to cause MS. Given this, human and animal viral models of MS are used to study its pathogenesis. One example is human T-lymphotropic virus type 1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). Importantly, HAM/TSP is similar clinically, pathologically, and immunologically to progressive MS. Interestingly, both MS and HAM/TSP patients were found to make antibodies to heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoprotein (hnRNP) A1, an RNA-binding protein overexpressed in neurons. Anti-hnRNP A1 antibodies reduced neuronal firing and caused neurodegeneration in neuronal cell lines, suggesting the autoantibodies are pathogenic. Further, microarray analyses of neurons exposed to anti-hnRNP A1 antibodies revealed novel pathways of neurodegeneration related to alterations of RNA levels of the spinal paraplegia genes (SPGs). Mutations in SPGs cause hereditary spastic paraparesis, genetic disorders clinically indistinguishable from progressive MS and HAM/TSP. Thus, there is a strong association between involvement of SPGs in neurodegeneration and the clinical phenotype of progressive MS and HAM/TSP patients, who commonly develop spastic paraparesis. Taken together, these data begin to clarify mechanisms of neurodegeneration related to the clinical presentation of patients with chronic immune-mediated neurological disease of the central nervous system, which will give insights into the design of novel therapies to treat these neurological diseases.

GDP-mannose transporter paralogues play distinct roles in polarized growth of Aspergillus nidulans.

GDP-mannose transporters (GMT) carry GDP-mannose nucleotide sugars from the cytosol across the Golgi apparatus membrane for use as substrates in protein glycosylation in plants, animals and fungi. Genomes of some fungal species, such as the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, contain only one gene encoding a GMT, while others, including Aspergillus nidulans, contain two (gmtA and gmtB). We previously showed that cell wall integrity and normal hyphal morphogenesis in A. nidulans depend upon the function of GmtA and that GmtA localizes to a Golgi-like compartment. Cells bearing the calI11 mutation in gmtA also have reduced cell surface mannosylation. Here we show that GmtB colocalizes with GmtA, suggesting that the role of GmtB is similar to that of GmtA, although the respective transcript levels differ during spore germination and early development. Transcript levels of gmtB are high in ungerminated spores and remain so throughout the first 16 h of germination. In contrast, transcript levels of gmrtA are negligible in ungerminated spores but increase to levels comparable to those of gmtB during germination. These observations suggest that although GmtA and GmtB reside within the same subcellular compartments, they nevertheless perform distinct functions at different stages of development.