Late Onset Ornithine Transcarbamylase Deficiency Triggered by an Acute Increase in Protein Intake: A Review of 10 Cases Reported in the Literature.

While the urea cycle disorders (UCDs) classically present in the neonatal stage, they have become increasingly recognized as a rare cause of unexplained hyperammonemic encephalopathy in adults. Many metabolic triggers for late-onset UCDs have been described in the literature including excessive protein intake. In this case series, ten such documented cases are reviewed with analysis of patient demographic, protein load, treatment course, and patient outcome. Common delays in treatment include recognition of hyperammonemia as the cause of encephalopathy and initiation of hemodialysis. In only one case was a diet history used to raise suspicion for a metabolic derangement. Metabolic disorders remain an important consideration in adults presenting with encephalopathy not explained by more common etiologies, and recent and remote dietary history may provide valuable information.

MRI characteristics of globus pallidus infarcts in isolated methylmalonic acidemia.

BACKGROUND: Bilateral infarcts confined to the globus pallidus are unusual and occur in conjunction with only a few disorders, including isolated methylmalonic acidemia, a heterogeneous inborn error of metabolism. On the basis of neuroradiographic features of metabolic strokes observed in a large cohort of patients with methylmalonic acidemia, we have devised a staging system for methylmalonic acidemia-related globus pallidus infarcts. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty patients with isolated methylmalonic acidemia and neurologic symptoms underwent clinical brain MR imaging studies, which included 3D-T1WI. Infarcted globus pallidus segments were neuroanatomically characterized, and infarct volumes were measured. RESULTS: Globus pallidus infarcts were present in 19 patients; all were bilateral, and most were left-dominant. A neuroanatomic scoring system based on the infarct patterns was devised; this revealed a 5-stage hierarchical susceptibility to metabolic infarct, with the posterior portion of the globus pallidus externa being the most vulnerable. Globus pallidus infarct prevalence by methylmalonic acidemia class was the following: cblA (5/7, 71%), cblB (3/7, 43%), mut(o) (10/22, 45%), and mut- (1/4, 25%). Tiny lacunar infarcts in the pars reticulata of the substantia nigra, previously unrecognized in methylmalonic acidemia, were found in 17 patients, 13 of whom also had a globus pallidus infarct. CONCLUSIONS: The staged pattern of globus pallidus infarcts in isolated methylmalonic acidemia suggests a nonuniform, regionally specific cellular susceptibility to metabolic injury, even for patients having milder biochemical phenotypes. In support of this hypothesis, the delineation of lacunar infarcts in the pars reticulata of the substantia nigra, a tissue functionally and histologically identical to the globus pallidus interna, supports the concept of cell-specific pathology.

High Intellectual Function in Individuals with Mutation-Positive Microform Holoprosencephaly.

Holoprosencephaly is the most common malformation of the forebrain and typically results in severe neurocognitive impairment with accompanying midline facial anomalies. Holoprosencephaly is heterogeneous and may be caused by chromosome aberrations or environmental factors, occur in the context of a syndrome or be due to heterozygous mutations in over 10 identified genes. The presence of these mutations may result in an extremely wide spectrum of severity, ranging from brain malformations incompatible with life to individuals with normal brain findings and subtle midline facial differences. Typically, clinicians regard intellectual disability as a sign that a parent or relative of a severely affected patient may be a mildly affected mutation 'carrier' with what is termed microform holoprosencephaly. Here we present 5 patients with clear phenotypic signs of microform holoprosencephaly, all of whom have evidence of above-average intellectual function. In 4 of these 5 individuals, the molecular cause of holoprosencephaly has been identified and includes mutations affecting SHH, SIX3, GLI2, and FGF8. This report expands the phenotypic spectrum of holoprosencephaly and is important in the counseling of patient and affected families.

Evidence report: Genetic and metabolic testing on children with global developmental delay: report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society.

OBJECTIVE: To systematically review the evidence concerning the diagnostic yield of genetic and metabolic evaluation of children with global developmental delay or intellectual disability (GDD/ID). METHODS: Relevant literature was reviewed, abstracted, and classified according to the 4-tiered American Academy of Neurology classification of evidence scheme. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: In patients with GDD/ID, microarray testing is diagnostic on average in 7.8% (Class III), G-banded karyotyping is abnormal in at least 4% (Class II and III), and subtelomeric fluorescence in situ hybridization is positive in 3.5% (Class I, II, and III). Testing for X-linked ID genes has a yield of up to 42% in males with an appropriate family history (Class III). FMR1 testing shows full expansion in at least 2% of patients with mild to moderate GDD/ID (Class II and III), and MeCP2 testing is diagnostic in 1.5% of females with moderate to severe GDD/ID (Class III). Tests for metabolic disorders have a yield of up to 5%, and tests for congenital disorders of glycosylation and cerebral creatine disorders have yields of up to 2.8% (Class III). Several genetic and metabolic screening tests have been shown to have a better than 1% diagnostic yield in selected populations of children with GDD/ID. These values should be among the many factors considered in planning the laboratory evaluation of such children.

A Hypomorphic Allele in the FGF8 Gene Contributes to Holoprosencephaly and Is Allelic to Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Deficiency in Humans.

Holoprosencephaly (HPE), the most common malformation of the human forebrain, may arise due to interacting genetic and environmental factors. To date, at least 12 contributory genes have been identified. Fibroblast growth factor 8 (Fgf8) belongs to the FGF family of genes expressed in several developmental signaling centers, including the anterior neural ridge, which is implicated in midline anomalies in mice. In humans, FGF8 mutations have been previously reported in facial clefting and in hypogonadotropic hypogonadism, but have not been reported in patients with HPE. We screened 360 probands with HPE for sequence variations in FGF8 using High Resolution DNA Melting (HRM) and sequenced all identified variations. Here we describe a total of 8 sequence variations in HPE patients, including a putative loss-of-function mutation in 3 members of a family with variable forms of classic HPE, and relate these findings to the phenotypes seen in other conditions.

Diffusion tensor imaging detects areas of abnormal white matter microstructure in patients with partial ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: OTCD, an X-linked disorder, is the most common of the UCDs. Neonatal onset is associated with uniformly poor outcome. Males with late-onset OTCD show deficits in executive function, motor planning, and working memory. A broad phenotype is observed in heterozygous females. A specific neurobehavioral phenotype with white matter dysfunction and impaired attention and working memory has been described. The extent to which the deficits involve specific pathways in the brain is unknown. We hypothesized that DTI would disclose white matter microstructure in OTCD correlating with cognitive deficits. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Nineteen adults with partial OTCD and 18 adult control subjects ages 19-59 years participated. MR imaging was performed by using a 3T whole-body scanner. Anisotropy was calculated from the eigenvalues of the diffusion tensor by using the FA metric and was compared between the study and control groups. RESULTS: FA of the frontal white matter was significantly decreased in subjects, indicating changes in white matter microstructure. There was an inverse relationship between FA and disease severity, but not with age. CONCLUSIONS: Findings of MR imaging in OTCD are often normal in patients with late-onset disease, heterozygotes, or in those not in hyperammonemic crisis. DTI was more sensitive than FSE T2-weighted imaging for detecting abnormalities in normal-appearing white matter. The extent of abnormality correlated with cognitive deficits. The location of the deficits in the frontal white matter is important because this area connects fibers that are vital to executive function, attention, and working memory.

TGIF Mutations in Human Holoprosencephaly: Correlation between Genotype and Phenotype.

Holoprosencephaly (HPE), which results from failed or incomplete midline forebrain division early in gestation, is the most common forebrain malformation. The etiology of HPE is complex and multifactorial. To date, at least 12 HPE-associated genes have been identified, including TGIF (transforming growth factor beta-induced factor), located on chromosome 18p11.3. TGIF encodes a transcriptional repressor of retinoid responses involved in TGF-ß signaling regulation, including Nodal signaling. TGIF mutations are reported in approximately 1-2% of patients with non-syndromic, non-chromosomal HPE. We combined data from our comprehensive studies of HPE with a literature search for all individuals with HPE and evidence of mutations affecting TGIF in order to establish the genotypic and phenotypic range. We describe 2 groups of patients: 34 with intragenic mutations and 21 with deletions of TGIF. These individuals, which were ascertained from our research group, in collaboration with other centers, and through a literature search, include 38 probands and 17 mutation-positive relatives. The majority of intragenic mutations occur in the TGIF homeodomain. Patients with mutations affecting TGIFrecapitulate the entire phenotypic spectrum observed in non-chromosomal, non-syndromic HPE. We identified a statistically significant difference between the 2 groups with respect to inheritance, as TGIF deletions were more likely to be de novo in comparison to TGIF mutations (χ(2) ((2)) = 6.97, p(permutated) = 0.0356). In addition, patients with TGIF deletions were also found to more commonly present with manifestations beyond the craniofacial and neuroanatomical features associated with HPE (p = 0.0030). These findings highlight differences in patients with intragenic mutations versus deletions affecting TGIF, and draw attention to the homeodomain region, which appears to be particularly relevant to HPE. These results may be useful for genetic counseling of affected patients.

1H MRS identifies symptomatic and asymptomatic subjects with partial ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate brain metabolism in subjects with partial ornithine transcarbamylase deficiency (OTCD) utilizing (1)H MRS. METHODS: Single-voxel (1)H MRS was performed on 25 medically-stable adults with partial OTCD, and 22 similarly aged controls. Metabolite concentrations from frontal and parietal white matter (FWM, PWM), frontal gray matter (FGM), posterior cingulate gray matter (PCGM), and thalamus (tha) were compared with controls and IQ, plasma ammonia, glutamine, and disease severity. RESULTS: Cases ranged from 19 to 59 years; average 34 years; controls ranged from 18 to 59 years; average 33 years. IQ scores were lower in cases (full scale 111 vs. 126; performance IQ 106 vs. 117). Decreased myoinositol (mI) in FWM (p=0.005), PWM (p<0.001), PCGM (p=0.003), and tha (p=0.004), identified subjects with OTCD, including asymptomatic heterozygotes. Glutamine (gln) was increased in FWM (p<0.001), PWM (p<0.001), FGM (p=0.002), and PCGM (p=0.001). Disease severity was inversely correlated with [mI] in PWM (r=-0.403; p=0.046) and directly correlated with [gln] in PCGM (r=0.548; p=0.005). N-Acetylaspartate (NAA) was elevated in PWM (p=0.002); choline was decreased in FWM (p=0.001) and tha (p=0.002). There was an inverse relationship between [mI] and [gln] in cases only. Total buffering capacity (measured by [mI/mI+gln] ratio, a measure of total osmolar capacity) was inversely correlated with disease severity in FWM (r=-0.479; p=0.018), PWM (r=-0.458; p=0.021), PCGM (r=-0.567; p=0.003), and tha (r=-0.345; p=0.037). CONCLUSION: Brain metabolism is impaired in partial OTCD. Depletion of mI and total buffering capacity are inversely correlated with disease severity, and serve as biomarkers.

Neurological implications of urea cycle disorders.

The urea cycle disorders constitute a group of rare congenital disorders caused by a deficiency of the enzymes or transport proteins required to remove ammonia from the body. Via a series of biochemical steps, nitrogen, the waste product of protein metabolism, is removed from the blood and converted into urea. A consequence of these disorders is hyperammonaemia, resulting in central nervous system dysfunction with mental status changes, brain oedema, seizures, coma, and potentially death. Both acute and chronic hyperammonaemia result in alterations of neurotransmitter systems. In acute hyperammonaemia, activation of the NMDA receptor leads to excitotoxic cell death, changes in energy metabolism and alterations in protein expression of the astrocyte that affect volume regulation and contribute to oedema. Neuropathological evaluation demonstrates alterations in the astrocyte morphology. Imaging studies, in particular (1)H MRS, can reveal markers of impaired metabolism such as elevations of glutamine and reduction of myoinositol. In contrast, chronic hyperammonaemia leads to adaptive responses in the NMDA receptor and impairments in the glutamate-nitric oxide-cGMP pathway, leading to alterations in cognition and learning. Therapy of acute hyperammonaemia has relied on ammonia-lowering agents but in recent years there has been considerable interest in neuroprotective strategies. Recent studies have suggested restoration of learning abilities by pharmacological manipulation of brain cGMP with phosphodiesterase inhibitors. Thus, both strategies are intriguing areas for potential investigation in human urea cycle disorders.

Gentamicin treatment of Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy due to nonsense mutations.

Aminoglycosides have previously been shown to suppress nonsense mutations, allowing translation of full-length proteins in vitro and in animal models. In the mdx mouse, where muscular dystrophy is due to a nonsense mutation in the dystrophin gene, gentamicin suppressed truncation of the protein and ameliorated the phenotype. A subset of patients with Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophy similarly possess a nonsense mutation, causing premature termination of dystrophin translation. Four such patients, with various stop codon sequences, were treated once daily with intravenous gentamicin at 7.5 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks. No ototoxicity or nephrotoxicity was detected. Full-length dystrophin was not detected in pre- and post-treatment muscle biopsies.

Diagnosis and treatment of childhood mitochondrial diseases.

Mitochondrial cytopathies are caused by genetic alterations of nuclear- or mitochondrial-encoded genes involved in the synthesis of subunits of the electron transport chain. Mutations of mitochondrial DNA are associated with a wide range of clinical presentations [1-4]. The ubiquitous nature of mitochondria and the role of the mitochondria in cellular metabolism result in the potential for any tissue in the body to be affected [5-7,8..,9]. Although some children with mitochondrial disease present with life-threatening lactic acidosis in the newborn period, the majority of children come to clinical attention for nonspecific problems, including failure to thrive, developmental delay, seizures, hypotonia, and loss of developmental milestones. The diagnosis of these disorders is made through careful clinical evaluation, coupled with biochemical, morphologic, and molecular biologic techniques. Genetic counseling is difficult due to unique aspects of mitochondrial genetics. Despite advances in our understanding of mitochondrial biochemistry and genetics, treatment options remain limited.

Treatment of diencephalic syndrome with chemotherapy: growth, tumor response, and long term control.

BACKGROUND: The diencephalic syndrome (DS), which is manifested by progressive emaciation and failure to thrive in an apparently alert, cheerful infant, usually is due to a low grade hypothalamic glioma. Treatment with aggressive surgery and/or radiotherapy is variably successful in controlling disease and may result in severe neurologic sequelae. Chemotherapy recently has been shown to be effective in patients with low grade gliomas of childhood, but it is used infrequently in those with DS. METHODS: The authors evaluated the efficacy of a regimen of carboplatin and vincristine on improving weight, causing tumor shrinkage, and delaying the need for alternative therapies in seven children (ages 9-20 months; median age, 11 months) with DS. Five patients weighed less than the 5th percentile for their age at the start of the study, one weighed within the 10th percentile, and one weighed within the 25th percentile. RESULTS: At follow-up (range, 6-54 months; median, 28 months), the patients' weights had increased by 66-95% (median, 80%). On magnetic resonance imaging, four patients had a >50% reduction in tumor mass, one had a 25-50% reduction, and two had stable disease. In those patients with radiographic response to treatment, weight gain was accomplished with oral feedings in four of five patients, whereas those with stable disease required nasogastric, nasojejunal, or gastrostomy tube supplementation to maintain weight. Disease progression occurred at a median of 24 months after initiation of chemotherapy, and two patients remained free of progressive disease at last follow-up. Five patients were alive a median of 59 months from diagnosis. The need for radiation or other therapies was delayed in six of seven children. Therapy was tolerated without significant toxicities. CONCLUSION: The authors conclude that treatment of DS with a carboplatin and vincristine regimen results in demonstrable weight gain, may result in tumor shrinkage, and in some cases, significantly delays the need for alternative therapies.

Pediatric congenital bilateral perisylvian syndrome: clinical and MRI features in 12 patients.

In 1926, Foix, Chavany and Marie described an acquired syndrome of fasciopharyngoglossomasticatory diplegia resulting from bilateral infarction of the anterior operculum. Clinical features consisted of facial diplegia, dysarthria, pseudobulbar palsy, mild to severe mental retardation, and seizures. A developmental form, similar in presentation in adults with MRI findings consisting of bilateral perisylvian cortical malformation consistent with polymicrogyria involving the sylvian fissure and opercular cortex, has been recognized; but few pediatric cases of congenital bilateral perisylvian syndrome (CBPS) have been reported. Over the past four years, we have encountered 12 cases of CBPS presenting in childhood. Age ranges were from 1 week to 11 years with a median of 2.25 years; six were less than two years of age. Seven were male and five female. Ten had bilateral perisylvian polymicrogyria on MRI; two had unilateral perisylvian schizencephaly with contralateral perisylvian polymicrogyria. Clinical manifestations included developmental delay in 7; poor palatal function in 5; hypotonia in 4; arthrogryposis in 4; hemiparesis in 3; apnea in 3; paraparesis in 2; micrognathia in 2; pectus excavatum in 2; quadriparesis in 1; and hearing loss in 1. Seizures occurred in seven (58%) and consisted of infantile spasms (n = 1), generalized tonic-clonic (n = 1), complex partial (n = 2), partial motor (n = 2; 1 with secondary generalization), and febrile convulsions (n = 1). CBPS has different manifestations in the pediatric population than in adults. CBPS is more common than previously thought, is recognizable by MRI and should be suspected clinically in any infant or child presenting with oromotor dysfunction/pseudobulbar signs and developmental delay, especially if there are associated congenital malformations. Epilepsy is not a constant feature in the pediatric presentation and is variable in type and severity.